Maruja De Villa Lorica
Paper written in June 2010
Introduction
This paper aims to provide enhanced understanding on the topic of information-seeking behavior. Specifically, it will a) present the definition of information seeking behavior by scholars and researchers in the field of library and information science (LIS); b) identify the importance of information seeking behavior to LIS professionals; c) describe two important user behaviors models on information seeking; d) provide some similarities and differences between the two models; and e) present application of the models to the LIS profession.
Definition of Information-seeking behavior
Case (2008, p. 8) defines information seeking as “a conscious effort to acquire information in response to a need or gap in your knowledge”. Wilson (1999, para. 9) states that information-seeking behaviour is a “consequence of a need perceived by an information user, who, in order to satisfy that need, makes demands upon formal or informal information sources or services, which result in success or failure to find relevant information”.
Further, Wilson (2000 explains that:
"Information Seeking Behavior is the purposive seeking for information as a consequence of a need to satisfy some goal. In the course of seeking, the individual may interact with manual information systems (such as a newspaper or a library), or with computer-based systems (such as the World Wide Web) (p. 49)."
Fourie (2006) considers information seeking as “ a complex, dynamic, social human behaviour that needs as rich a picture as possible to truly understand the phenomenon – and even then there will be many unanswered questions” (p. 20).
Importance of Information Seeking Behavior to the work of library professionals
Information seeking behavior has been a focus of research within the library and information profession. According to Agosto and Hughes-Hassell (2005, p. 141), understanding human information behavior is a vital component in providing high quality library service. When LIS professionals understand human information-seeking behaviors and preferences, they can transform their services and resources to correspond to these patterns, to better serve users’ information needs.
People from all walks of life seek out and utilize information everyday. Information regarding studies and research, work, entertainment, health, money matters, family, and other topics, is obtained from various sources. Knowledge of reasons and motivation why people seek information and the types of information they seek in their everyday lives can impact “collection development, reference services, programming, and budget allotment practices” (Agosto & Hughes-Hassell, 2005, p. 142).
Results of information seeking studies can be used for improving collection development. As articulated by Agosto and Hughes-Hassell (2005), librarians would be better able to match their collections to young adults’ information-seeking practices given an understanding and appreciation of young adults’ source/channel preferences (p. 142). Haines, Light, O’Malley, and Delwiche (2010) stated that library resources and services can be modified and made more valuable to patrons in response to findings of information-seeking studies. For example, as a result of their project, graduate student orientations were added, online subject guides were inserted into course management software and departmental web pages, and purchase of more online resources intended for use in the basic sciences have been considered.
In addition, Fourie (2006, pp. 20-21) said that results from web information-seeking studies can assist LIS professionals in knowledge representation, the design of web sites and portals, in the development of training and web-based information retrieval systems (IRS), the design and administration of online education, electronic customer relationship management (CRM) and electronic service quality.
Discussion of two user behavior models that describe information seeking from different perspectives
According to Johnson (as cited by Case, 2008, p. 121), models are important means to represent and organize complex processes. Models focus on specific problems than theories (Case, p. 120). Usually depicted in illustrations, flow-charts, and diagrams, models aim to describe and explain circumstances that predict actions by individuals to find information they need.
Wilson (2000) describes information behavior model as:
"A framework for thinking about a problem and may evolve into a statement of the relationships among theoretical propositions. Most models in the general field of information behaviour are of the former variety: they are statements, often in the form of diagrams that attempt to describe an information-seeking activity, the causes and consequences of that activity, or the relationships among stages in information-seeking behaviour (para. 6)."
The two models of information seeking described in this paper are Carol Collier Kuhlthau’s model of the stages of information-seeking behaviour and David Ellis's behavioral model of information seeking strategies.
Kuhlthau (1991, 1993) described in detail the model of Information Search Process (ISP) which evolved out of an exploratory study which she earlier reported in 1985 and 1988. The study involved 25 senior high school students who were given assignments to write two research papers. The students’ journals, search logs, pieces of writing and answers to a questionnaire provided details on the information search process used. Case studies of six of the participants through interviews, timelines, and flowcharts provided additional information.
Based from the study, Kuhlthau identified the following stages in the information seeking process: (1) task initiation: uncertainty; (2) topic selection: optimism; (3) prefocus exploration: confusion, frustration, and doubt; (4) focus formulation: clarity; (5) information collection: direction, confidence; (6) search closure: relief; (7) starting writing: satisfaction or dissatisfaction (Kuhlthau, 1993).
Kuhlthau characterized the first stage, initiation as the stage when a person becomes aware that information will be needed to “complete an assignment”. The person feels uncertain and apprehensive. The next stage, selection is when a person has chosen an idea, topic, or problem. At this point, the person is now less uncertain, and feels a sense of optimism and a readiness to start the information search process.
The third stage, the exploration process, which Kuhlthau considers the most difficult stage, is when students (or information seekers) become confused when they encounter “inconsistent or incompatible” information. It is at this point that information seekers may become discouraged, express feelings of doubt and plan of abandoning their search process. The fourth stage, focus formulation, which is considered as the turning point, is when a focused perspective is formed, uncertainty decreases, and clarity is obtained.
The fifth stage, collection is when information relevant to the topic is gathered. At this point, the information seeker feels a sense of direction; his/her uncertainty diminishes and becomes interested and deeply involved in the search process. At this point, confidence grows in the search process. The sixth stage, search closure is when the search is completed and information seekers prepare to present or use their findings. They experience relief and a sense of satisfaction if the search process is successful or disappointed if they feel that the search was a failure. Kuhlthau states that these stages of the ISP encompass “the affective (feelings), the cognitive (thoughts), and the physical (actions).
According to Cooper (2002, p. 906), Kuhlthau's research is unique in that it takes into consideration the feelings, actions and thoughts involved in the search process. It considers how the searcher feels (affective) during different parts of the Information Seeking Process as well as what the searcher is thinking (cognitive) and doing (action). Each stage of Kuhlthau’s Information Seeking Process is characterized by particular feelings, thoughts, and actions. The actions can be thought of as coinciding with changes in search strategies.
Ellis (1993, 2002) studied the activities and perceptions of academic social scientists at the University of Sheffield in the United Kingdom. Ellis used informal semistructured interview among social science scholars consisting of psychologists, educationalists, economists, sociologists, historians, geographers and political scientists. He analyzed the data using a grounded theory approach. From the results, Ellis identified 6 major categories to cover the characteristics of the information seeking patterns of social scientists, namely 1) starting, 2) chaining, 3) browsing, 4) differentiating, 5) monitoring, and 6) extracting.
According to Ellis (1993), starting refers to seeking information on a new topic and gathering initial relevant information. Starting includes activities that form the initial search for information such as identifying sources that could serve as starting points of the search. These could be familiar sources used before or less familiar sources that can provide relevant information. These initial sources can lead to, or suggest, or recommend additional sources or references. Following up on these new leads from an initial source is the activity of Chaining.
Chaining, as clarified by Ellis, refers to following references in a work to its cited works (backward) and finding new citations to this work (forward). Backward chaining occurs when pointers or references from an initial source are followed, while forward chaining identifies and follows up on other sources that refer to an initial source or document.
The next category, according to Ellis is browsing which refers to undirected information seeking activity. It is looking for information in a casual way, which by exploration could lead to chance discovery of information in areas of interest to the user. Browsing involves looking through tables of contents, lists of titles, subject headings, names of organizations or persons, abstracts and summaries. Next to browsing is differentiating, which is the process of discriminating between information sources using specific criteria. During differentiating, the information seeker filters and selects from among the sources by taking note of the differences between the nature and quality of the information offered.
Monitoring, as described by Ellis is the process of keeping abreast of developments in areas of research interests. By monitoring, the information seeker concentrates on core sources of information which may include personal contacts and publications. Extracting refers to working systematically through sources to identify relevant material of interest. An information seeker is able to achieve extracting by directly consulting the source, or by indirectly looking through bibliographies, indexes, or online databases. Two other categories, namely; Verifying which is checking the accuracy of information and Ending which may refer to as 'tying up loose ends' through a final search are also identified (Ellis, 1993; Wilson, 1999).
As indicated by Wilson (1999, para. 22), the remaining behaviors do not necessarily take place in a sequential manner and may commence in different sequences at different times in the overall search process. He adds that Ellis’ features of information seeking patterns can be considered as “between the micro-analysis of search behaviour (starting, chaining, extracting, verifying, ending) and a more macro-analysis of information behaviour (browsing, monitoring, differentiating)”.
Meho and Tibbo (2003) assert that Ellis’ categorization of actual information seeking behavior activities among social scientists suggested that information retrieval systems could increase their usefulness by including features that directly support these activities (p. 571).
Similarities and Differences between the two models
According to Limberg (1999), the models of Ellis and Kuhlthau are both based on users' perspectives of information seeking and both are results of empirical studies. In particular, Järvelin and Ingwersen (2004) state that the approaches in information seeking based on Kuhlthau's model and Ellis's characteristics of information seeking behaviour cover several empirical domains, such as the social sciences and engineering, and some work task contexts, such as student information seeking.
Wilson (1999, para. 25) stated that Kuhlthau's work complements that of Ellis by attaching to stages of the 'information search process' the associated feelings, thoughts and actions, and the appropriate information tasks.
Kuhlthau's model of the information search process was however developed within a learning context-among secondary school students, while Ellis study was conducted among a particular occupational group, namely, social scientists, academics, researchers, and scholars.
Ways by which models can help information professionals improve information products and services
Cooper (2002) said that enhanced understanding of Kuhlthau’s information seeking process of how young children look for information in a textual environment lends insight to LIS professionals to develop more supportive environments for this particular population group. By having positive early encounters with information systems, young searchers would be encouraged to seek out these systems with a greater confidence in their success. This increased confidence will likely facilitate the ease with which young searchers will seek and use more sophisticated information systems in their later years.
Fourie (2006, p.28) adds that library and information professionals who recognize that information seeking involves a cognitive process as well as feelings (affective component) and actions can provide reassurance to library patrons who have questions and feel uncertain about their search process. By continuing with the search and exploring different or new options, patrons get to a point where they feel confident again. Library and information professionals must share such insights and experiences with users for them to continue in their search process.
As stated by Meho and Tibbo (2003, p.571) most of the information-seeking behavior features in Ellis' model have now found application in information science and computer technology. They maintain that Ellis’ information-seeking behavior features “are now being supported by capabilities available in Web browsers” (p.571).
Choo, Detlor and Turnbull (as cited by Meho and Tibbo, 2003) described that:
"For example, an individual could begin surfing the Web from one of a few favorite pages or sites (starting); follow links to related information resources—in both backward and forward linking directions (chaining): scan the web sites of the sources selected (browsing): bookmark useful sources for future reference (differentiating); subscribe to e-mail based services that alert the user of new information or developments (monitoring); and search a particular source or site for all information on that site on a particular topic (extracting) (p. 571)."
Conclusion
The discussion in this paper aimed to contribute to enhanced understanding on the topic of information-seeking behavior by: a) presenting the definition of information seeking behavior by scholars and researchers in the field of library and information science (LIS); b) identifying the importance of information seeking behavior to LIS professionals; c) describing two important user behaviors models on information seeking; d) providing some similarities and differences between the two models; and e) presenting some application of the models to the LIS profession. Understanding human information seeking behavior is fundamental in planning, developing and implementing library information resources and services.
References
Agosto, D. E., & Hughes- Hassell, S. (2005). People, places, and questions: An investigation of the everyday life information-seeking behaviors of urban young adults. Library & Information Science Research, 27(2), 141–63. Retrieved June 14, 2010 from the University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Library Literature & Info Science Full Text database.
Case, D. O. (2008). Looking for information: A survey of research on information seeking, needs, and behavior (2nd ed.). Bingley, UK: Emerald.
Cooper, L. Z. (2002, September). A Case study of information-seeking behavior in 7-year-old children in a semi-structured situation. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 53(11), 904-922. Retrieved June 14, 2010 from the University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts with Full Text database.
Ellis, D. (1993). Modeling the information-seeking patterns of academic researchers: A
grounded theory approach. Library Quarterly, 63(4), 469-486. Retrieved June 14, 2010 from the University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts with Full Text database.
Ellis, D. (2002). Information seeking and mediated searching. Part 5: User-intermediary interaction. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(11), 883-93. Retrieved June 14, 2010 from the University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts with Full Text database.
Fourie, I. (2006). Learning from web information seeking studies: some suggestions for LIS practitioners. The Electronic Library, 24(1), 20-37. Retrieved from the University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Emerald Full Text database.
Haines, L.L., Light, J., O’Malley, D., & Delwiche, F. A. (2010, January) Information-seeking behavior of basic science researchers: implications for library services. Journal of Medical Library Association, 98(1), 73–81. Retrieved June 14, 2010, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2801986/. DOI: 10.3163/1536-5050.98.1.019.
Järvelin, K., & Ingwersen, P. (2004). Information seeking research needs extension towards tasks and technology. Information Research, 10(1). Retrieved June 13, 2010, from http://InformationR.net/ir/10-1/paper212.html
Kuhlthau, C.C. (1991). Inside the search process: information seeking from the users’ perspective. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 42(5), 361-71. Retrieved June 13, 2010 from University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts with Full Text database.
Kuhlthau, C. C. (1993). The information search process. In Seeking meaning: A process approach to library and information services (ch. 3: 33-53). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Limberg, L. (1999). Experiencing information seeking and learning: A study of the interaction between two phenomena. Information Research, 5(1). Retrieved June 13, 2010, from http://informationr.net/ir/5-1/paper68.html
Meho, L., & Tibbo, H. (2003). Modeling the information-seeking behavior of social scientists: Ellis's study revisited. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 54(6), 570. Retrieved June 13, 2010 from University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Academic Search Complete database.
Wilson, T. D. (1999). Models in information behaviour research. Journal of Documentation, 55(3), 249-270. Retrieved June 13, 2010, from http://informationr.net/tdw/publ/papers/1999JDoc.html
Wilson, T. D. (2000). Human information behavior. Informing Science, 3(2). Retrieved June 14, 2010, from http://inform.nu/Articles/Vol3/v3n2p49-56.pdf
Saturday, February 12, 2011
Friday, February 4, 2011
Annotated Bibliography: PATRIOT Act
Maruja De Villa Lorica
Paper/Project written in Fall 2008
Books
Abele, R. P. (2005). User’s guide to the USA PATRIOT Act and beyond. MA: University Press of America.
Robert P. Abele is a professor of philosophy and political science at Yuba College in Marysville, California. In this book, he examines the controversial USA PATRIOT Act passed by Congress six weeks after September 11, 2001. The book provides a nontechnical introduction to its main provisions, the prior Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, and proposed legislation such as the Domestic Security Enhancement Act (or "USA PATRIOT II").
The book summarizes analysis of USA PATRIOT done by the American Civil Liberties Union. Likewise, it includes discussion of other legislations and programs put into operation to restrict the civil liberties of Americans, and other proposed programs and laws that curtail privacy, due process, and free speech.
Etzioni, A. (2004). How patriotic is the USA PATRIOT Act? : Freedom versus security in the age of terrorism. New York: Routledge.
Amitai Etzioni is the Director of the Institute of Communitarian Policy Studies at George Washington University. In this book, he started off the discussion with a premise that Americans “face two profound commitments: protecting our homeland and safeguarding our rights”. He provides a middle road, and argues that public safety measures are crucial to democracy, but not all safety measures enhance liberty. As example, he finds parts of the USA PATRIOT Act reasonable and necessary such as the Student and Exchange Visitor Information System while others are troubling including the military tribunals.
The book provides a discussion of security measures undertaken in the U.S. since September 11. It also reviews the levels of privacy and security of various forms of electronic communication, including the potential threats they pose and attacks on public health from biological weapons, among others. The book also cited a number of challenges that modern technology poses to individual freedoms.
Finan, C. M. (2007). From the Palmer raids to the USA PATRIOT Act: A history of the fight for free speech in America. Boston: Beacon Press.
In this book, Christopher Finan, historian, activist, and President of the American Booksellers Association for Free Expression detailed the evolution and expansion of the concept of freedom of speech in the United States. He begins with the anti-subversive raids of thousands of Russian immigrants led by Attorney General A Mitchell Palmer in 1919 and ends with a discussion of the efforts of librarians opposing censorship in the face of the USA PATRIOT Act (hence the title).
Based on original research and secondary sources, the book underscores the important contribution of librarians in opposing censorship. It recounts the events in 2005 where four Connecticut librarians sought assistance from the ACLU. The Federal Bureau of Investigation had issued a National Security Letter demanding information about patrons who had used the library's computers. Concerned that a government search of library records would affect free speech, the librarians contacted the ACLU, which obtained an injunction blocking the order.
The book credits the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and the Supreme Court, among others for providing leadership in protecting freedom of speech, opposing censorship, and promoting the rights of people.
Foerstel, H. N. (2004). Refuge of a scoundrel: The USA PATRIOT Act in libraries. Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited.
In the book, Herbert Foerstel, former head of branch libraries at the University of Maryland, reviews all aspects of the USA PATRIOT Act directly affecting libraries and provides advice on what actions to take if a library is approached by law enforcement agencies under authority of USA PATRIOT Act Section 215. The book also gives a detailed description of the events leading to the passage of the USA PATRIOT Act, starting with the origins of library surveillance and continuing to the USA PATRIOT Act including gag orders for librarians and the its effects on library policies on patron records.
The book cites examples that libraries and librarians have adopted to protect confidentiality of their patrons’ records. It offers cases and methods to prevent the impact of the USA PATRIOT Act as well as advice on what types of policy statements should be developed to protect both the library and its patrons. It also includes various conversations and arguments presented by federal representatives in their support for the Act.
Journal Articles
Chaffee, G. J. (Fall 2008). Effects of the USA PATRIOT Act on Wyoming libraries, library professionals, and nonprofessionals. Library Administration and Management, 22 (4), 183-192. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from Library, Information Science and Technology Abstracts Full Texts via UNT Electronic Resources: http://irservices.library.unt.edu
Gary J. Chaffee, a McNair Scholar at the University of Wyoming and a graduate student in the School of Library and Information Science at the University of Kentucky studied the impact of the USA PATRIOT Act on the work of librarians in the rural, mountain state of Wyoming. Through a survey, he obtained librarians’ responses to potential and actual requirements of the Act such as librarians' awareness of the USA PATRIOT Act, handling of sensitive patron information, staff training for law enforcement and government information request procedures, targeted training for the mechanics of the USA PATRIOT Act, and how questions and concerns from patrons have been addressed.
Based from his findings, Chaffee recommends that a) libraries review their patron privacy policies and their guidelines in the event of the issuance of a USA PATRIOT Act subpoena for patron records; b) develop a database of free resources for sharing among Wyoming libraries as guide and as support for training smaller libraries; and c) Wyoming libraries communicate with each other and coordinate with local associations (WLA) and national organizations (ALA) for guidelines and support on issues related to intellectual freedom.
Foster, A. (2006, June 9). Library group tells the story of a gag order by the FBI. Chronicle of Higher Education, 52 (40), pA1-A31. Retrieved November 20, 2008 from EBSCO Host Academic Search Complete Database via UNT Electronic Resources: http://irservices.library.unt.edu.
This article written by Andrea Foster, staff reporter of the Chronicle of Higher Education describes the experience and action taken by employees of Library Connection, Inc. after being issued a National Security Letter (NSL) under the USA PATRIOT Act which allows the FBI to request records without a warrant. The article also explains that NSLs are issued without a judge’s approval, and that in addition to granting record access, those who receive NSLs are prohibited from discussing the matter with others.
The employees of the Library Connection, Inc challenged the constitutionality of the order in court and were represented by the American Civil Liberties Union. They argued that their opposition was not to the order itself but that the NSL violated their rights to speak freely.
Pike, George H. (May 2007). “The USA PATRIOT Act illuminated. Information Today, 24 (5), 17-18. Retrieved November 20, 2008, from Academic Search Complete Database via UNT Electronic Resources: http://irservices.library.unt.edu
The author, a library director and law professor explores the concerns raised on two provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act, namely: Section 215 which allows government investigators to get secret warrants to obtain business records, and that section which allows the issuance to businesses, without warrants, of Nationals Security Letters (NSLs). Pike cites the investigation of the Department of Justice on FBI’s practices and procedures regarding Section 215 request and NSLs. He also describes reports on violations and confusion related to NSLs procedures. The article also mentions that none of the approved warrants between 2002 and 2005 involved library records
Radio Interview
Elliott, D. (2006, February 11). Librarians wary of USA PATRIOT Act’s implications. [All Things Considered] Dallas: National Public Radio; KERA.
In a radio interview by National Public Radio Congressional Correspondent Debbie Elliot, Michael Gorman, head of the American Library Association, and librarian Joan Airoldi offered their insights on what the proposed changes of the USA PATRIOT Act would mean for the library and information science profession.
Mr. Gorman discussed two changes in the reauthorization of the USA PATRIOT Act with implications to libraries. He said that the gag orders that come along with FISA warrants can now be appealed, but they cannot be appealed until a year after the warrant is issued. Likewise, authorities will no longer be able to issue searches without reasonable grounds, however, they will be able to access library pooled databases.
Websites and Online Resources
American Library Association. The USA PATRIOT Act. Retrieved November 17, 2008, from http://www.ala.org/ala/aboutala/offices/wo/woissues/civilliberties/theusapatriotact/usapatriotact.cfm
The website presents ALA’s stand that “sections of the USA PATRIOT ACT are a present danger to the constitutional rights and privacy rights of library users”. The website also states ALA’s position that “libraries do cooperate with law enforcement when presented with a lawful court order to obtain specific information about specific patrons”.
In addition, the website contains recent information on USA Patriot Act’s Sections 215 and 505. It gives a comparison of the standards, approval, disclosure, challenges, minimization requirements, reports and audits under the original Patriot Act, and the new reauthorized legislation. A timeline of significant events related to the Act’s reauthorization history and the efforts to include reforms to protect privacy rights of library patrons are also provided. Links to other resources related to the Patriot Act are also included.
Minneapolis Public Library. The USA PATRIOT Act: Q & A. Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http://www.mpls.lib.mn.us/patriotactqa.asp
The site maintained by the Minneapolis Public Library (MPL) explains, in a question and answer format, how the Patriot Act, particularly Sections 215 & 216 affects libraries. It also enumerates what kind of information can be requested from libraries, and the type of patron information the MPL keeps to better manage its library resources.
The site provides the Minneapolis Public Library privacy policies which state that patron record, research, or other activities at the Minneapolis Public Library is not released to anyone including other government agencies, whether local, state or federal without a court order. Links to other online resources are also provided.
Minow, M. (2002, February 15). Features- the USA PATRIOT Act and patron privacy on library Internet terminals. LibraryLaw.com. Retrieved November 20, 2008, from http://www.llrx.com/features/usapatriotact.htm
Through a question and answer format, Minow, a library law consultant, discusses the issues and implications of the USA PATRIOT Act on library patron privacy. She points out that the USA PATRIOT Act opens door for law enforcement to get into library computer server, and eventually to patrons using the library Internet. She offers advice and guidelines on how libraries and librarians can adhere to the USA PATRIOT Act and cooperate with law enforcement when presented with lawful court orders while ensuring their patrons’ right to privacy and freedom of inquiry.
Werner, L. M. USA PATRIOT Act reauthorization and its impact on libraries. Retrieved November 15, 2008, from http://www.michigan.gov/documents/hal/lm_trustees_PATRIOTActRe authorization_223204_7.pdf
Lance M. Werner, a member of the Committee on Libraries, Legal Research and Legal Publication, and a reference librarian at MSU–DCL Law Library discusses the various changes in the reauthorization version of the Patriot Act compared to the original Act, most notable of which is the sunset provision whereby Section 215 of the Act, the portion that affects libraries, is now scheduled to expire on December 31, 2009.
The article enumerates the various changes in the reauthorized version. It is now possible for a recipient of a Section 215 order to challenge the order, and that the reauthorization contains express language that enables a recipient of a Section 215 order to disclose the receipt of the order to a legal counsel to obtain legal advice. It also discusses the importance of Section 505 of the reauthorized Act to public libraries. Section 505 provides that libraries, when functioning in a traditional manner, are not subject to National Security Letter searches.
Werner advocates that public libraries should have written policies and procedures to address requests for confidential library information, including requests related to the USA PATRIOT Act.
Paper/Project written in Fall 2008
Books
Abele, R. P. (2005). User’s guide to the USA PATRIOT Act and beyond. MA: University Press of America.
Robert P. Abele is a professor of philosophy and political science at Yuba College in Marysville, California. In this book, he examines the controversial USA PATRIOT Act passed by Congress six weeks after September 11, 2001. The book provides a nontechnical introduction to its main provisions, the prior Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, and proposed legislation such as the Domestic Security Enhancement Act (or "USA PATRIOT II").
The book summarizes analysis of USA PATRIOT done by the American Civil Liberties Union. Likewise, it includes discussion of other legislations and programs put into operation to restrict the civil liberties of Americans, and other proposed programs and laws that curtail privacy, due process, and free speech.
Etzioni, A. (2004). How patriotic is the USA PATRIOT Act? : Freedom versus security in the age of terrorism. New York: Routledge.
Amitai Etzioni is the Director of the Institute of Communitarian Policy Studies at George Washington University. In this book, he started off the discussion with a premise that Americans “face two profound commitments: protecting our homeland and safeguarding our rights”. He provides a middle road, and argues that public safety measures are crucial to democracy, but not all safety measures enhance liberty. As example, he finds parts of the USA PATRIOT Act reasonable and necessary such as the Student and Exchange Visitor Information System while others are troubling including the military tribunals.
The book provides a discussion of security measures undertaken in the U.S. since September 11. It also reviews the levels of privacy and security of various forms of electronic communication, including the potential threats they pose and attacks on public health from biological weapons, among others. The book also cited a number of challenges that modern technology poses to individual freedoms.
Finan, C. M. (2007). From the Palmer raids to the USA PATRIOT Act: A history of the fight for free speech in America. Boston: Beacon Press.
In this book, Christopher Finan, historian, activist, and President of the American Booksellers Association for Free Expression detailed the evolution and expansion of the concept of freedom of speech in the United States. He begins with the anti-subversive raids of thousands of Russian immigrants led by Attorney General A Mitchell Palmer in 1919 and ends with a discussion of the efforts of librarians opposing censorship in the face of the USA PATRIOT Act (hence the title).
Based on original research and secondary sources, the book underscores the important contribution of librarians in opposing censorship. It recounts the events in 2005 where four Connecticut librarians sought assistance from the ACLU. The Federal Bureau of Investigation had issued a National Security Letter demanding information about patrons who had used the library's computers. Concerned that a government search of library records would affect free speech, the librarians contacted the ACLU, which obtained an injunction blocking the order.
The book credits the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and the Supreme Court, among others for providing leadership in protecting freedom of speech, opposing censorship, and promoting the rights of people.
Foerstel, H. N. (2004). Refuge of a scoundrel: The USA PATRIOT Act in libraries. Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited.
In the book, Herbert Foerstel, former head of branch libraries at the University of Maryland, reviews all aspects of the USA PATRIOT Act directly affecting libraries and provides advice on what actions to take if a library is approached by law enforcement agencies under authority of USA PATRIOT Act Section 215. The book also gives a detailed description of the events leading to the passage of the USA PATRIOT Act, starting with the origins of library surveillance and continuing to the USA PATRIOT Act including gag orders for librarians and the its effects on library policies on patron records.
The book cites examples that libraries and librarians have adopted to protect confidentiality of their patrons’ records. It offers cases and methods to prevent the impact of the USA PATRIOT Act as well as advice on what types of policy statements should be developed to protect both the library and its patrons. It also includes various conversations and arguments presented by federal representatives in their support for the Act.
Journal Articles
Chaffee, G. J. (Fall 2008). Effects of the USA PATRIOT Act on Wyoming libraries, library professionals, and nonprofessionals. Library Administration and Management, 22 (4), 183-192. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from Library, Information Science and Technology Abstracts Full Texts via UNT Electronic Resources: http://irservices.library.unt.edu
Gary J. Chaffee, a McNair Scholar at the University of Wyoming and a graduate student in the School of Library and Information Science at the University of Kentucky studied the impact of the USA PATRIOT Act on the work of librarians in the rural, mountain state of Wyoming. Through a survey, he obtained librarians’ responses to potential and actual requirements of the Act such as librarians' awareness of the USA PATRIOT Act, handling of sensitive patron information, staff training for law enforcement and government information request procedures, targeted training for the mechanics of the USA PATRIOT Act, and how questions and concerns from patrons have been addressed.
Based from his findings, Chaffee recommends that a) libraries review their patron privacy policies and their guidelines in the event of the issuance of a USA PATRIOT Act subpoena for patron records; b) develop a database of free resources for sharing among Wyoming libraries as guide and as support for training smaller libraries; and c) Wyoming libraries communicate with each other and coordinate with local associations (WLA) and national organizations (ALA) for guidelines and support on issues related to intellectual freedom.
Foster, A. (2006, June 9). Library group tells the story of a gag order by the FBI. Chronicle of Higher Education, 52 (40), pA1-A31. Retrieved November 20, 2008 from EBSCO Host Academic Search Complete Database via UNT Electronic Resources: http://irservices.library.unt.edu.
This article written by Andrea Foster, staff reporter of the Chronicle of Higher Education describes the experience and action taken by employees of Library Connection, Inc. after being issued a National Security Letter (NSL) under the USA PATRIOT Act which allows the FBI to request records without a warrant. The article also explains that NSLs are issued without a judge’s approval, and that in addition to granting record access, those who receive NSLs are prohibited from discussing the matter with others.
The employees of the Library Connection, Inc challenged the constitutionality of the order in court and were represented by the American Civil Liberties Union. They argued that their opposition was not to the order itself but that the NSL violated their rights to speak freely.
Pike, George H. (May 2007). “The USA PATRIOT Act illuminated. Information Today, 24 (5), 17-18. Retrieved November 20, 2008, from Academic Search Complete Database via UNT Electronic Resources: http://irservices.library.unt.edu
The author, a library director and law professor explores the concerns raised on two provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act, namely: Section 215 which allows government investigators to get secret warrants to obtain business records, and that section which allows the issuance to businesses, without warrants, of Nationals Security Letters (NSLs). Pike cites the investigation of the Department of Justice on FBI’s practices and procedures regarding Section 215 request and NSLs. He also describes reports on violations and confusion related to NSLs procedures. The article also mentions that none of the approved warrants between 2002 and 2005 involved library records
Radio Interview
Elliott, D. (2006, February 11). Librarians wary of USA PATRIOT Act’s implications. [All Things Considered] Dallas: National Public Radio; KERA.
In a radio interview by National Public Radio Congressional Correspondent Debbie Elliot, Michael Gorman, head of the American Library Association, and librarian Joan Airoldi offered their insights on what the proposed changes of the USA PATRIOT Act would mean for the library and information science profession.
Mr. Gorman discussed two changes in the reauthorization of the USA PATRIOT Act with implications to libraries. He said that the gag orders that come along with FISA warrants can now be appealed, but they cannot be appealed until a year after the warrant is issued. Likewise, authorities will no longer be able to issue searches without reasonable grounds, however, they will be able to access library pooled databases.
Websites and Online Resources
American Library Association. The USA PATRIOT Act. Retrieved November 17, 2008, from http://www.ala.org/ala/aboutala/offices/wo/woissues/civilliberties/theusapatriotact/usapatriotact.cfm
The website presents ALA’s stand that “sections of the USA PATRIOT ACT are a present danger to the constitutional rights and privacy rights of library users”. The website also states ALA’s position that “libraries do cooperate with law enforcement when presented with a lawful court order to obtain specific information about specific patrons”.
In addition, the website contains recent information on USA Patriot Act’s Sections 215 and 505. It gives a comparison of the standards, approval, disclosure, challenges, minimization requirements, reports and audits under the original Patriot Act, and the new reauthorized legislation. A timeline of significant events related to the Act’s reauthorization history and the efforts to include reforms to protect privacy rights of library patrons are also provided. Links to other resources related to the Patriot Act are also included.
Minneapolis Public Library. The USA PATRIOT Act: Q & A. Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http://www.mpls.lib.mn.us/patriotactqa.asp
The site maintained by the Minneapolis Public Library (MPL) explains, in a question and answer format, how the Patriot Act, particularly Sections 215 & 216 affects libraries. It also enumerates what kind of information can be requested from libraries, and the type of patron information the MPL keeps to better manage its library resources.
The site provides the Minneapolis Public Library privacy policies which state that patron record, research, or other activities at the Minneapolis Public Library is not released to anyone including other government agencies, whether local, state or federal without a court order. Links to other online resources are also provided.
Minow, M. (2002, February 15). Features- the USA PATRIOT Act and patron privacy on library Internet terminals. LibraryLaw.com. Retrieved November 20, 2008, from http://www.llrx.com/features/usapatriotact.htm
Through a question and answer format, Minow, a library law consultant, discusses the issues and implications of the USA PATRIOT Act on library patron privacy. She points out that the USA PATRIOT Act opens door for law enforcement to get into library computer server, and eventually to patrons using the library Internet. She offers advice and guidelines on how libraries and librarians can adhere to the USA PATRIOT Act and cooperate with law enforcement when presented with lawful court orders while ensuring their patrons’ right to privacy and freedom of inquiry.
Werner, L. M. USA PATRIOT Act reauthorization and its impact on libraries. Retrieved November 15, 2008, from http://www.michigan.gov/documents/hal/lm_trustees_PATRIOTActRe authorization_223204_7.pdf
Lance M. Werner, a member of the Committee on Libraries, Legal Research and Legal Publication, and a reference librarian at MSU–DCL Law Library discusses the various changes in the reauthorization version of the Patriot Act compared to the original Act, most notable of which is the sunset provision whereby Section 215 of the Act, the portion that affects libraries, is now scheduled to expire on December 31, 2009.
The article enumerates the various changes in the reauthorized version. It is now possible for a recipient of a Section 215 order to challenge the order, and that the reauthorization contains express language that enables a recipient of a Section 215 order to disclose the receipt of the order to a legal counsel to obtain legal advice. It also discusses the importance of Section 505 of the reauthorized Act to public libraries. Section 505 provides that libraries, when functioning in a traditional manner, are not subject to National Security Letter searches.
Werner advocates that public libraries should have written policies and procedures to address requests for confidential library information, including requests related to the USA PATRIOT Act.
Thursday, February 3, 2011
Annotated Bibliography on Metadata
Maruja De Villa Lorica
Paper/project written in Spring 2009
1. Baca, M. (October, 2003). Practical Issues in Applying Metadata Schemas and Controlled Vocabularies to Cultural Heritage Information. Cataloging & Classification Quarterly, 36(3/4), 47. Retrieved March 10, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database via UNT Electronic Resources: http://irservices.library.unt.edu/
The article explains what metadata mapping and crosswalks are by providing clear definitions of each term. Metadata mapping enables one to identify metadata elements or groups of metadata elements within different metadata schemas. Crosswalks show which value in one metadata standard matches a particular value in another standard.
2. Bohle, S. (2008). The New Digital Awareness. Library Journal, (133) 12. Retrieved March 10, 2009, from Library Literature & Information Science database via UNT Electronic Resources: http://irservices.library.unt.edu/
Bohle discusses three “competing” models in metadata and digital asset management (DAM), which he refers to as "competitive isolationists," the "exclusionary collaborateurs," and the "free mashups and crossovers”. The "competitive isolationists" are those institutions that vigorously and successfully protect their holdings, regardless of copyright status, using expensive software packages; “exclusionary collaborateurs” are institutions that share copyrighted materials and/or metadata through the use of same-software or standards to form formal "collaborative" groups, and "free mashups and crossovers” are those groups that have "relinquished" their noncopyrighted and/or copyrighted holdings by crossing over to the "Creative Commons" (CC) for all noncommercial use.
3. Caplan, P. (2003). Metadata fundamentals for all librarians. Chicago: American Library Association.
The book addresses the concept and structure of metadata and it examines a variety of metadata schemes common to the library and information science profession. It defines metadata, including its various types (descriptive, administrative, structural), schemes (sets of metadata elements designed for a specific purpose and the rules for their use), and levels of description (work, expression, manifestation, and item).
The book also presents a discussion of the formats used to represent metadata in machine-readable form, as well as an overview of Internet search engines and embedded metadata
4. Day, M. Extending metadata for digital preservation. Retrieved March 5, 2009 from http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue9/metadata/
The article discusses the role of metadata in the organization of and access to networked information and in the area of digital preservation. It introduces that metadata formats come in a variety of shapes and sizes such as the Dublin Core which is intended to be a simple structured record which can, if required, be enhanced or mapped to more complex records, and the USMARC which is used by OCLC.
The article points out the useful role of preservation metadata in helping ensure that digital information will be available to future generations. It also poses several questions such as who will define what preservation metadata are needed, who will decide what needs to be preserved, who will archive the preserved information, who will create the metadata, and who will pay for it.
5. International Imaging Industry Association. Metadata Standards: A Smarter Way to Look at Digital Images. Retrieved January 28, 2009, from http://www.i3a.org/technologies/metadata/
The article discusses the importance of metadata in digital imaging. It states that metadata allows image files to contain additional information beyond the pixels in the image itself. In addition, metadata a) enhances the content of the image (by adding an audio track, for instance); b) provides in-depth information on the image and its creation, such as date and time, focus distance, light levels, GPS location; and, c) allows for easy indexing, identification, categorization and usage-control according to image type, copyright conditions, originator, subject matter, and location.
6. Neal, D. (2006). News photography image retrieval practices: locus of control in two contexts. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Denton, TX: University of North Texas.
In this dissertation study, Neal explored the photograph retrieval methods preferred by news photographers and news photo editors in an actual work context. Results showed that most participants prefer searching by events taking place in the photograph, objects that exist in the photograph, photographer- provided keywords, and relevant metadata, such as the date the picture was taken. Further, news photographers, news photo editors, and other photojournalism-related professionals favor searching for photographs for their work by various metadata-based keywords related to the story told in the picture, such as the events taking place or people that appear in the picture.
This particular reading is relevant to the general topic of metadata. Based from Neal’s findings, specific events, people, places, and other metadata that exist in the picture are the respondents’ favorite ways to retrieve pictures.
7. O’Connor, B. & O’Connor, M. (1999). Categories, photographs & predicaments: exploratory research on representing pictures for access. Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science. 25 (6). Retrieved March 9, 2009,from http://www.asis.org/Bulletin/Aug-99/o_connor.html
The article reports the findings of an exploratory study on representing pictures for access. Participants were librarians or library school students. Analysis consisted of gathering the adjectives and adjectival phrases that describe users' reactions to the images and through content analysis to determine the categories that would emerge.
Results showed a wide range of narrative and emotive descriptors used by the participants. Antonyms emerged as anticipated while geographic attribution emerged which the researchers had not anticipated. The researchers conclude that user assertions about interactions with pictures can be gathered to form a rich description of images and as basis for constructing categories.
8. Shiri, A. (2008). Metadata-enhanced visual interfaces to digital libraries. Journal of Information Science, (34) 763. Retrieved February 6, 2009 from Academic Search Complete via UNT Electronic Resources: http://irservices.library.unt.edu/
The article reports a study carried out to investigate and analyze a specific category of digital library visual interfaces that support information seeking and retrieval based on metadata representations. The study identified ways in which designers of visual interfaces for digital libraries have utilized these metadata elements to support users in their search process and interaction experience.
The article demonstrates that metadata enhanced visual interfaces are an emerging category of visual interfaces
9. Taylor, A. (2004). The Organization of Information, 2nd ed. Westport, Connecticut: Libraries Unlimited.
In Chapter 6 of the book, Taylor discussed the topic of metadata. She defined metadata as “data about data”. Specifically, metadata is an encoded description of an information package (e.g., an AACR2 record encoded with MARC) to provide a level of data at which choices can be made as to which information package to view or search, without having to search massive amount of irrelevant full text.
Taylor enumerated metadata characteristics such as “interoperability”, “flexibility”, and “extensibility”. Interoperability refers to the ability of various systems to interact with each other regardless of the software or hardware being used, thus minimizing the loss of information due to technological differences. Flexibility is the ability of “metadata creators to include as much or as little detail as desired in the metadata record”. Extensibility is the ability to use additional metadata elements and qualifiers as needed.
10. The University of North Texas Library. (2005). Metadata: Descriptive Metadata. Information Technology Services, Digital Projects Unit.
This resource published by UNT in November 2005 provides guidelines to metadata creators in describing digital objects in a consistent manner to enable long term access, optimum searching, and retrieval of information by users of digital collections. The document aims to promote interoperability with accepted standards as well as flexibility to integrate with existing content, processes, and systems.
Paper/project written in Spring 2009
1. Baca, M. (October, 2003). Practical Issues in Applying Metadata Schemas and Controlled Vocabularies to Cultural Heritage Information. Cataloging & Classification Quarterly, 36(3/4), 47. Retrieved March 10, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database via UNT Electronic Resources: http://irservices.library.unt.edu/
The article explains what metadata mapping and crosswalks are by providing clear definitions of each term. Metadata mapping enables one to identify metadata elements or groups of metadata elements within different metadata schemas. Crosswalks show which value in one metadata standard matches a particular value in another standard.
2. Bohle, S. (2008). The New Digital Awareness. Library Journal, (133) 12. Retrieved March 10, 2009, from Library Literature & Information Science database via UNT Electronic Resources: http://irservices.library.unt.edu/
Bohle discusses three “competing” models in metadata and digital asset management (DAM), which he refers to as "competitive isolationists," the "exclusionary collaborateurs," and the "free mashups and crossovers”. The "competitive isolationists" are those institutions that vigorously and successfully protect their holdings, regardless of copyright status, using expensive software packages; “exclusionary collaborateurs” are institutions that share copyrighted materials and/or metadata through the use of same-software or standards to form formal "collaborative" groups, and "free mashups and crossovers” are those groups that have "relinquished" their noncopyrighted and/or copyrighted holdings by crossing over to the "Creative Commons" (CC) for all noncommercial use.
3. Caplan, P. (2003). Metadata fundamentals for all librarians. Chicago: American Library Association.
The book addresses the concept and structure of metadata and it examines a variety of metadata schemes common to the library and information science profession. It defines metadata, including its various types (descriptive, administrative, structural), schemes (sets of metadata elements designed for a specific purpose and the rules for their use), and levels of description (work, expression, manifestation, and item).
The book also presents a discussion of the formats used to represent metadata in machine-readable form, as well as an overview of Internet search engines and embedded metadata
4. Day, M. Extending metadata for digital preservation. Retrieved March 5, 2009 from http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue9/metadata/
The article discusses the role of metadata in the organization of and access to networked information and in the area of digital preservation. It introduces that metadata formats come in a variety of shapes and sizes such as the Dublin Core which is intended to be a simple structured record which can, if required, be enhanced or mapped to more complex records, and the USMARC which is used by OCLC.
The article points out the useful role of preservation metadata in helping ensure that digital information will be available to future generations. It also poses several questions such as who will define what preservation metadata are needed, who will decide what needs to be preserved, who will archive the preserved information, who will create the metadata, and who will pay for it.
5. International Imaging Industry Association. Metadata Standards: A Smarter Way to Look at Digital Images. Retrieved January 28, 2009, from http://www.i3a.org/technologies/metadata/
The article discusses the importance of metadata in digital imaging. It states that metadata allows image files to contain additional information beyond the pixels in the image itself. In addition, metadata a) enhances the content of the image (by adding an audio track, for instance); b) provides in-depth information on the image and its creation, such as date and time, focus distance, light levels, GPS location; and, c) allows for easy indexing, identification, categorization and usage-control according to image type, copyright conditions, originator, subject matter, and location.
6. Neal, D. (2006). News photography image retrieval practices: locus of control in two contexts. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Denton, TX: University of North Texas.
In this dissertation study, Neal explored the photograph retrieval methods preferred by news photographers and news photo editors in an actual work context. Results showed that most participants prefer searching by events taking place in the photograph, objects that exist in the photograph, photographer- provided keywords, and relevant metadata, such as the date the picture was taken. Further, news photographers, news photo editors, and other photojournalism-related professionals favor searching for photographs for their work by various metadata-based keywords related to the story told in the picture, such as the events taking place or people that appear in the picture.
This particular reading is relevant to the general topic of metadata. Based from Neal’s findings, specific events, people, places, and other metadata that exist in the picture are the respondents’ favorite ways to retrieve pictures.
7. O’Connor, B. & O’Connor, M. (1999). Categories, photographs & predicaments: exploratory research on representing pictures for access. Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science. 25 (6). Retrieved March 9, 2009,from http://www.asis.org/Bulletin/Aug-99/o_connor.html
The article reports the findings of an exploratory study on representing pictures for access. Participants were librarians or library school students. Analysis consisted of gathering the adjectives and adjectival phrases that describe users' reactions to the images and through content analysis to determine the categories that would emerge.
Results showed a wide range of narrative and emotive descriptors used by the participants. Antonyms emerged as anticipated while geographic attribution emerged which the researchers had not anticipated. The researchers conclude that user assertions about interactions with pictures can be gathered to form a rich description of images and as basis for constructing categories.
8. Shiri, A. (2008). Metadata-enhanced visual interfaces to digital libraries. Journal of Information Science, (34) 763. Retrieved February 6, 2009 from Academic Search Complete via UNT Electronic Resources: http://irservices.library.unt.edu/
The article reports a study carried out to investigate and analyze a specific category of digital library visual interfaces that support information seeking and retrieval based on metadata representations. The study identified ways in which designers of visual interfaces for digital libraries have utilized these metadata elements to support users in their search process and interaction experience.
The article demonstrates that metadata enhanced visual interfaces are an emerging category of visual interfaces
9. Taylor, A. (2004). The Organization of Information, 2nd ed. Westport, Connecticut: Libraries Unlimited.
In Chapter 6 of the book, Taylor discussed the topic of metadata. She defined metadata as “data about data”. Specifically, metadata is an encoded description of an information package (e.g., an AACR2 record encoded with MARC) to provide a level of data at which choices can be made as to which information package to view or search, without having to search massive amount of irrelevant full text.
Taylor enumerated metadata characteristics such as “interoperability”, “flexibility”, and “extensibility”. Interoperability refers to the ability of various systems to interact with each other regardless of the software or hardware being used, thus minimizing the loss of information due to technological differences. Flexibility is the ability of “metadata creators to include as much or as little detail as desired in the metadata record”. Extensibility is the ability to use additional metadata elements and qualifiers as needed.
10. The University of North Texas Library. (2005). Metadata: Descriptive Metadata. Information Technology Services, Digital Projects Unit.
This resource published by UNT in November 2005 provides guidelines to metadata creators in describing digital objects in a consistent manner to enable long term access, optimum searching, and retrieval of information by users of digital collections. The document aims to promote interoperability with accepted standards as well as flexibility to integrate with existing content, processes, and systems.
Annotated Bibliography on Digital Preservation
Maruja De Villa Lorica
Paper/project written in Spring 2009
1. Cornell University Library. (2003). Moving theory into practice: digital imaging tutorial. Retrieved March 5, 2009 from http://www.library.cornell.edu/preservation/tutorial/contents.html;
http://www.library.cornell.edu/preservation/tutorial/preservation/preservation-01.html
The article provides the rationale for digital preservation which is to maintain the ability to display, retrieve, and use digital collections in the face of rapidly changing technological and organizational infrastructures and elements. It also discusses the challenges facing digital preservation, categorized into technical vulnerabilities and organizational and administrative issues. It cites examples of initiatives towards practical approaches to digital preservation are such as the Open Archival Information System (OAIS), Networked European Deposit Library, and the Preserving and Accessing Networked Documentary Resources of Australia (PANDORA) Project, among others.
2. Deegan, M. and Tanner, S. eds. (2006). Digital Preservation. London: Facet Publishing.
The book edited by Deegan and Tanner with contributions from leading experts in the field of digital preservation, provides a clear description of the various methods that can be adopted to preserve digital material, and various strategic issues related to digital preservation such as copyright and moral rights. It also covers topics on the OAIS Reference Model – the generic standard that lays down the principles of digital preservation; metadata; web archiving including case studies, especially those involving national libraries); costs involved; and examples of European approaches to digital preservation.
3. Digital Preservation Coalition. Preservation Management of Digital Materials: The Handbook (www.dpconline.org/graphics/handb). Retrieved March 5, 2009 from http://www.dpconline.org/docs/handbook/DPCHandbookDigPres.pdf
This article deals on digital preservation strategies to address the problem of digital objects not being accessible in the future. These strategies include preservation, emulation, and migration. The technology preservation strategy is concerned with the preservation of the original software and hardware that was used to create and access the information. The technology emulation strategy involves the re-creation of the technical environment required to view and use a digital collection. In the digital information migration strategy, digital information is re-encoded in new formats before the old format becomes obsolete
4. Grindley, N. (February 2009). Saving for the future. Research Information (40) 13- 14. Retrieved March 5, 2009 from Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts with Full Text via UNT Electronic Resources: http://irservices.library.unt.edu/
The article provides a sound rationale for digital preservation. Grindley states that storage media can simply decay or malfunction, a process known as bit rot, which can lead to serious losses of information. This can affect digital data to varying extents, from single character omission, to scrambling of information, or to a major loss of data. Further, he says that organizational issues like withdrawal of funding and general institutional instability are valid concerns for digital collections. Organizations merge and fold, and as a result, digital collections and whole data sets can become ‘orphaned’ as institutional priorities, interest and incentive to deal with digital materials change.
5. Hirtle, P. (2003). Digital Preservation and Copyright. Retrieved March 3, 2009, from http://fairuse.stanford.edu/commentary_and_analysis/2003_11_hirtle.html
Hirtle explores the concerns and issues related to digital preservation and copyright. He states that there are at least three specific sections of the copyright law that may be of assistance. Section 17 USC § 117 of the United States copyright states that in spite of the copyright owner's exclusive rights, it is permissible to make a copy for archival purposes of a copyrighted computer program. Likewise, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act ("DMCA") has a provision that explicitly allows libraries and archives to make up to three copies of a work for preservation purposes. In addition, individuals and libraries can turn to the Fair Use provision in US copyright law.
6. Marcum, D. and Friedlander, A. (2003). Keepers of the crumbling culture: What digital preservation can learn from library history. D-Lib Magazine 9 (5). Retrieved March 10, 2009 from http://www.dlib.org/dlib/may03/friedlander/05friedlander.html
The article summarizes the history of preservation in libraries centered on the book. It also states that the degradation of books and newsprint, which was an unanticipated adverse consequence of technological innovation, led to the modern, scientific study of preservation requirements by re-formatting, first to microfilm and subsequently to digital media. It presents some issues and concerns related to digital preservation such as what should be preserved, who should preserve, who will ensure access to these resources, and who will preserve them as part of the human cultural record, among others.
7. Rothenberg, J. (1999). Avoiding Technological Quicksand: Finding a Viable Technical Foundation for Digital Preservation. Retrieved March 4, 2009, from Council of Library and Information Resources (CLIR): http://www.clir.org/pubs/abstract/pub77.html
This report explores the technical problems associated with long-term digital preservation, analyzes a number of ideas proposed as solutions, and elaborates the emulation strategy. The central idea of the emulation strategy is to emulate obsolete systems on future, unknown systems, so that a digital document's original software can be run in the future despite being obsolete. Rothenberg asserts that emulation strategy has many advantages over the other approaches suggested and offers a promising solution to the problem of preserving digital material far into the future.
8. Savage, B. (2001). Introductory Notes on Digital Imaging and Preservation. Retrieved March 10, 2009 from http://cool-palimpsest.stanford.edu/byauth/savage/dignotes1.html
The article discusses two types of digital reformatting, namely, a) reformatting to prevent the types of deterioration to which the native format is prone, and b) creation of digital surrogates, which extend the life of the original by diminishing handling, or exposure to air and light. The article also deals on media integrity (the inherent characteristics of the host medium), format obsolescence (both for physical media and file structure), and information fidelity (creating image file which describes as accurately as possible the source signal).
9. van Horik, R. (2005). Permanent pixels: Building blocks for the longevity of digital surrogates of historical photographs. The Hague. (PhD Dissertation). Retrieved March 6, 2009 from http://www.knaw.nl/publicaties/pdf/20051103.pdf
This research project aimed to illustrate a means for memory institutes to create durable digital surrogates of photographs, to manage them and to provide long-term access to them. Likewise, the project was conducted to gain increased understanding on the digital preservation of photographs and to contribute to better insights related to longevity of digital objects in general. The research report provides a good overview of the various efforts of “memory institutes” towards digitization, and digital preservation in the US, Europe and other parts of the world.
10. The Library of Congress. Sustainability of Digital Formats: Planning for Library of Congress Collections. Retrieved February 12, 2009 from http://www.digitalpreservation.gov/formats/intro/format_eval_rel.shtml
The document discusses several sustainability factors to consider when evaluating a digital format because these factors affect the feasibility and cost of preserving content given the changes in technology and how archiving institutions operate. These sustainability factors are: disclosure, adoption, transparency, self-documentation, external dependencies, impact of patents, and technical protection mechanisms.
Paper/project written in Spring 2009
1. Cornell University Library. (2003). Moving theory into practice: digital imaging tutorial. Retrieved March 5, 2009 from http://www.library.cornell.edu/preservation/tutorial/contents.html;
http://www.library.cornell.edu/preservation/tutorial/preservation/preservation-01.html
The article provides the rationale for digital preservation which is to maintain the ability to display, retrieve, and use digital collections in the face of rapidly changing technological and organizational infrastructures and elements. It also discusses the challenges facing digital preservation, categorized into technical vulnerabilities and organizational and administrative issues. It cites examples of initiatives towards practical approaches to digital preservation are such as the Open Archival Information System (OAIS), Networked European Deposit Library, and the Preserving and Accessing Networked Documentary Resources of Australia (PANDORA) Project, among others.
2. Deegan, M. and Tanner, S. eds. (2006). Digital Preservation. London: Facet Publishing.
The book edited by Deegan and Tanner with contributions from leading experts in the field of digital preservation, provides a clear description of the various methods that can be adopted to preserve digital material, and various strategic issues related to digital preservation such as copyright and moral rights. It also covers topics on the OAIS Reference Model – the generic standard that lays down the principles of digital preservation; metadata; web archiving including case studies, especially those involving national libraries); costs involved; and examples of European approaches to digital preservation.
3. Digital Preservation Coalition. Preservation Management of Digital Materials: The Handbook (www.dpconline.org/graphics/handb). Retrieved March 5, 2009 from http://www.dpconline.org/docs/handbook/DPCHandbookDigPres.pdf
This article deals on digital preservation strategies to address the problem of digital objects not being accessible in the future. These strategies include preservation, emulation, and migration. The technology preservation strategy is concerned with the preservation of the original software and hardware that was used to create and access the information. The technology emulation strategy involves the re-creation of the technical environment required to view and use a digital collection. In the digital information migration strategy, digital information is re-encoded in new formats before the old format becomes obsolete
4. Grindley, N. (February 2009). Saving for the future. Research Information (40) 13- 14. Retrieved March 5, 2009 from Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts with Full Text via UNT Electronic Resources: http://irservices.library.unt.edu/
The article provides a sound rationale for digital preservation. Grindley states that storage media can simply decay or malfunction, a process known as bit rot, which can lead to serious losses of information. This can affect digital data to varying extents, from single character omission, to scrambling of information, or to a major loss of data. Further, he says that organizational issues like withdrawal of funding and general institutional instability are valid concerns for digital collections. Organizations merge and fold, and as a result, digital collections and whole data sets can become ‘orphaned’ as institutional priorities, interest and incentive to deal with digital materials change.
5. Hirtle, P. (2003). Digital Preservation and Copyright. Retrieved March 3, 2009, from http://fairuse.stanford.edu/commentary_and_analysis/2003_11_hirtle.html
Hirtle explores the concerns and issues related to digital preservation and copyright. He states that there are at least three specific sections of the copyright law that may be of assistance. Section 17 USC § 117 of the United States copyright states that in spite of the copyright owner's exclusive rights, it is permissible to make a copy for archival purposes of a copyrighted computer program. Likewise, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act ("DMCA") has a provision that explicitly allows libraries and archives to make up to three copies of a work for preservation purposes. In addition, individuals and libraries can turn to the Fair Use provision in US copyright law.
6. Marcum, D. and Friedlander, A. (2003). Keepers of the crumbling culture: What digital preservation can learn from library history. D-Lib Magazine 9 (5). Retrieved March 10, 2009 from http://www.dlib.org/dlib/may03/friedlander/05friedlander.html
The article summarizes the history of preservation in libraries centered on the book. It also states that the degradation of books and newsprint, which was an unanticipated adverse consequence of technological innovation, led to the modern, scientific study of preservation requirements by re-formatting, first to microfilm and subsequently to digital media. It presents some issues and concerns related to digital preservation such as what should be preserved, who should preserve, who will ensure access to these resources, and who will preserve them as part of the human cultural record, among others.
7. Rothenberg, J. (1999). Avoiding Technological Quicksand: Finding a Viable Technical Foundation for Digital Preservation. Retrieved March 4, 2009, from Council of Library and Information Resources (CLIR): http://www.clir.org/pubs/abstract/pub77.html
This report explores the technical problems associated with long-term digital preservation, analyzes a number of ideas proposed as solutions, and elaborates the emulation strategy. The central idea of the emulation strategy is to emulate obsolete systems on future, unknown systems, so that a digital document's original software can be run in the future despite being obsolete. Rothenberg asserts that emulation strategy has many advantages over the other approaches suggested and offers a promising solution to the problem of preserving digital material far into the future.
8. Savage, B. (2001). Introductory Notes on Digital Imaging and Preservation. Retrieved March 10, 2009 from http://cool-palimpsest.stanford.edu/byauth/savage/dignotes1.html
The article discusses two types of digital reformatting, namely, a) reformatting to prevent the types of deterioration to which the native format is prone, and b) creation of digital surrogates, which extend the life of the original by diminishing handling, or exposure to air and light. The article also deals on media integrity (the inherent characteristics of the host medium), format obsolescence (both for physical media and file structure), and information fidelity (creating image file which describes as accurately as possible the source signal).
9. van Horik, R. (2005). Permanent pixels: Building blocks for the longevity of digital surrogates of historical photographs. The Hague. (PhD Dissertation). Retrieved March 6, 2009 from http://www.knaw.nl/publicaties/pdf/20051103.pdf
This research project aimed to illustrate a means for memory institutes to create durable digital surrogates of photographs, to manage them and to provide long-term access to them. Likewise, the project was conducted to gain increased understanding on the digital preservation of photographs and to contribute to better insights related to longevity of digital objects in general. The research report provides a good overview of the various efforts of “memory institutes” towards digitization, and digital preservation in the US, Europe and other parts of the world.
10. The Library of Congress. Sustainability of Digital Formats: Planning for Library of Congress Collections. Retrieved February 12, 2009 from http://www.digitalpreservation.gov/formats/intro/format_eval_rel.shtml
The document discusses several sustainability factors to consider when evaluating a digital format because these factors affect the feasibility and cost of preserving content given the changes in technology and how archiving institutions operate. These sustainability factors are: disclosure, adoption, transparency, self-documentation, external dependencies, impact of patents, and technical protection mechanisms.
Online Library Catalogs: Uses and Limitations
Maruja De Villa Lorica
Paper written in June 2010
Introduction
Mi and Weng (2008, p. 5) note that the information –seeking behavior of academic library users has undergone significant changes in recent years. Internet search engines have become the preferred tool over the library online public access catalog (OPAC) for finding information. Libraries are losing ground to online search engines, and Google and Amazon.com are the two Web services commonly compared to the library catalog.
Academic libraries are heavily impacted by this change since many college students are satisfied with the information they find on the Internet for their assignments. Students end up not taking advantage of the high quality resources in their libraries (Mi & Weng, 2008).
Description of Catalogs
Taylor (2004) said that “catalog shows what exist in the collection written by certain authors, having certain titles, or on certain subjects” (p. 8). Further, Taylor notes that the catalog is a location device to indicate where in the collection the item will be found, assuming it is not circulating among users” (p. 8).
Bopp and Smith (2001) stated that “a catalog is composed of representations or surrogate of the bibliographic objects including books, journals, audio and video materials, maps and other non-print items. These representations are called bibliographic records” (p. 71). According to Bopp and Smith, the bibliographic record in a card catalog was printed on a set of cards while in an online catalog, the bibliographic record consists of machine-readable information, known as MARC (machine-readable cataloging record) encoded in a digital format. In a way, MARC is the means by which computers exchange, use, and interpret bibliographic information (Fritz & Fritz, 2003).
Taylor (2004, p. 36-37) said that catalogs have different formats, namely: book, card, Computer Output Microform (COM), and online public access catalog (OPAC). Chu (as cited by Creel, 2008, p.13-14) said that OPACs have been classified as having three generations: a) the first generation is the card catalog in electronic format; b) the second generation has enhancements such as additional subject access points; and c) the third generation merged OPACs into something more similar to the online catalog with remote access.
Hildreth (2001) made mention of two types of OPACs: a) the Web-based OPAC, and b) the Text-based OPAC. The main difference between the two OPACs is the user interface style and interaction capabilities. The Text-based OPAC used conventional text-based command and menu-driven interface, while the Web-based OPAC featured a "point and click" graphical user interface (GUI) and has hypertext searching and browsing capabilities. Both OPACs however contained the same catalog database and searchable indexes, and both were accessible via the Internet. The Web OPAC was available on the World Wide Web, and the text-based OPAC was available via Telnet access on the Internet.
Efficient and deficient characteristics in current online library catalogs
Hildreth (as cited by Taylor, 2004) stated that “ the online public access catalog is the first major development that brings the benefits of automation directly to the user as a means of expanded access to library collections and as a means of organizing and preserving bibliographic information for effective self-services” (p. 109).
Several scholars, researchers, and library and information science practitioners however have raised their concerns and observations about the limitations of the current the online library catalogs.
Borgman (as cited by Taylor, 2004, p. 114) expressed the view that OPACs are (still) difficult to use because their design does not consider the searching behavior of library users. Borgman added that the long-term goal of system designers is to develop intuitive systems that require the least amount of instruction.
Taylor (2004) stated that online catalogs have not yet been standardized. Taylor noted that “writers in the field have called for standardization, so that patrons can move from one catalog to another, or search multiple catalogs from the same location and find records displayed in the same manner” (p. 38). In a study aimed at revitalizing the OPAC, Mi and Weng (2008) found the “ huge differences among online catalogs in terms of interface layout, search options and search languages, behind-the-scenes search algorithms, search results displays, display labels and the corresponding bibliographic data, and what data was chosen for display” (p. 17). In their view, these disparities in OPAC’s features suggested the great differences in the amount of attention, energy, and time entailed by each library to designing its OPAC.
Mi and Weng (2008, p. 5) observed that current academic library OPACs search results are not sorted using relevance ranking systems unlike search results delivered by online search engines. They noted that search results sorted using relevance ranking systems are more user-friendly than the ones currently employed by academic library OPACs. Likewise, Wakimoto (2009, p. 421) made the observation that digital collections and institutional repositories are not part of online catalog thereby creating “information silos” within the library system. This is in contrast with current discovery tools which include metadata from digital libraries and repositories.
Further, Mi and Weng (2008, p. 7) noted that online catalogs still use "Boolean keyword" search as the default and require users to add quotation marks to define phrases. Mi and Weng added that information seekers find Google-like search engines easy to use because the need to enter Boolean connectors (AND, OR, NOT) between search terms is eliminated. They opined that this is logical because users usually look for records that contain all the terms that they enter.
Mi and Weng (2008) also noted the lack of value-added information in online library catalogs such as book cover image. Book covers can help a user recognize or remember a book he or she has earlier seen or encountered. Online library catalog can provide value-added and contextual information by linking those images to tables of contents, summaries, sample passages of text, and reviews.
Trends, solutions, and new standards for the next generation library catalog
Many researchers have expressed concerns on the declining use of online library catalogs (Casey, 2007; Matheson & Davidson, 2007; Mi & Weng, 2008; Wakimoto, 2009). Matheson and Davidson (2007) opined that users expect more from libraries because they have become more familiar with the World Wide Web and Web 2.0 applications found in commercial web sites (such as Amazon.com) and search engines (such as Google). As articulated by Matheson and Davidson (2007, p. 61) Amazon.com integrates into its website search functionality not normally included in libraries, including limited full-text search options. In addition, Amazon provides personalized features including recommendations to customers based upon algorithms that take into consideration the users’ purchase history in relation to the history of other users.
Monnich and Spiering (2008) also suggested that providing a Web 2.0 recommender system, such as the one used by Amazon.com will add value to the library catalog. Recommender systems offer customers hints (or tips) about other interesting products and thereby increasing sales. The recommender system is currently used by Amazon, whereby any title contains a link: "customers who bought this also bought ..." These referrals are based on analysis and evaluation of the buying patterns of Amazon customers.
Casey (2007, p. 17) advocates the need for change of online library catalog, into what he terms as Catalog 2.0. He surmises that the next version of OPAC should incorporate certain attributes of Web 2.0 such as “user participation, customization, maximum usability, and enhanced discovery” (p. 18). He notes that the popularity of Amazon.com can be attributed to its value-added features such as customer reviews, starred aggregate ratings, alternate selections, book cover art, and links to books that other people doing similar search are buying (p. 17).
Casey (pp. 18-21) enumerated some attributes that he envisions the next generation of catalog should offer its users. These include: relevancy ranking, clean interface, spell checking, faceting, advanced search operations, full-text searching of all holdings, professional reviews, similar searches feature, user-added tags, customer-written reviews, blogs, option to allow reputation ranking, aggregated rating system, suggest to a friend link, RSS feeds for the catalog and library website, and citation creator for various formats.
References
Bopp, R. E., & Smith, L. S. (2001). Reference and information services: An introduction (3rd ed.). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
Casey, M. (2007). Looking toward catalog 2.0. In N. Courtney (Ed.), Library 2.0 and beyond: Innovative technologies and tomorrow’s user (pp. 16-23). Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.
Creel, S. (2007). Are online catalogs for children giving them what they need? Children’s cognitive development and information seeking and their impact on design. Unpublished dissertation, University of North Texas.
Fritz, D. A., & Fritz, R. J. (2003). MARC for everyone: A practical guide. Chicago, IL: American Library Association.
Hildreth, C. R. (2001). Accounting for users' inflated assessments of on-line catalogue search performance and usefulness: an experimental study. Information Research, 6(2). Retrieved June 12, 2010 from http://InformationR.net/ir/6-2/paper101.html
Matheson, S. & Davidson, S. (2007, January). The evolution of providing access to information: Is the online catalog nearing extinction? Legal Reference Services Quarterly, 26 (1), 57-89. Retrieved June 12, 2010, from University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Library, Information Science and Technology Abstracts with Full Text database.
Mi, J., & Weng, C. (2008, March). Revitalizing the library OPAC: Interface, searching, and display challenges. Information Technology and Libraries, 27(1), 5-22. Retrieved June 12, 2010 from the University of North Texas, Library Literature and Info Science Full Text database.
Monnich, M., & Spiering, M. (2008, May/June). Adding value to the library catalog by implementing a recommendation system. D-lib, 14(5/6). Retrieved June 12, 2010, from http://www.dlib.org/may08/monnich/05monnich.html
Taylor, A. (2004). The organization of information (2nd ed.). Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.
Wakimoto, J. C. (2009, July). Scope of the library catalog in times of transition. [Electronic version]. Cataloging &Classification Quarterly, 47(5), 409- 426. Retrieved June 12, 2010 from the University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts with Full Text database.
Friday, January 28, 2011
Cataloging Electronic Resources: A Continuing Challenge
Maruja De Villa Lorica
Paper written in Spring 2009
Introduction
This paper together aims to provide library professionals particularly beginning librarians increased understanding about cataloging electronic resources. In particular, this paper a) presents an overview of electronic resources and the importance of cataloging electronic resources, b) explores selection criteria, and c) presents issues and concerns related to cataloging electronic resources.
Overview of Electronic Resources
The Anglo- American Cataloging Rules (AACR), 2005 Update as cited by Weitz (2006) defines an electronic resource as a "Material (data and/or program(s)) encoded for manipulation by a computerized device. This material may require the use of a peripheral directly connected to a computerized device (e.g., CD-ROM drive) or a connection to a computer network (e.g., the Internet)." This definition does not include electronic resources that do not require the use of a computer, for example, music compact discs and videodiscs.
The Draft Interim Guidelines for Cataloging Electronic Resources/Library of Congress (n.d.) provides two ways of accessing electronic resource, namely a) direct access, and b) remote access. Direct access is the term used to characterize access to an electronic resource resident in a carrier such as a computer disk or a CD-ROM that a user physically inserts into a computer, usually a microcomputer. Remote access, on the other hand, refers to access to an electronic resource resident in a carrier that a user cannot physically handle, i.e., a resource accessed, processed, executed remotely. Remote access involves connection through a computer network and is usually referred to as "online" access.
The Anglo-American Cataloging Rules2 (AACR2) defines remote access to mean that no physical carrier can be handled. Remote access can only be provided by use of an input-output device (e.g., a terminal), either connected to a computer system (e.g., a resource in a network), or by use of resources stored in a hard disk or other storage device.
For the purpose of this paper, the focus of discussion will be mainly on remote access electronic resources i.e., online resources accessed over a computer network such as the Internet.
Importance of Cataloging Electronic Resources
Šauperl and Saye (2009) underscore the reasons why libraries have begun to catalog web sites and Internet resources. These are to make more resources available to users, and help users retrieve valuable information from the Internet. Hsieh-Yee (2000) adds that it is worthwhile to catalog important Internet resources for users because such efforts add value to the resources by collocating materials, facilitating access, and saving time.
Weber (1999) states that Internet resource provides the most current available information on a given topic. He argues that cataloging electronic resources could serve a great number of users simultaneously. In addition, the Internet resource does not require users to visit the library and guarantees 24-hour access to a resource.
Selection Criteria for Cataloging Internet Resources
The inclusion of Internet resources into the collections of libraries is an evolving process. Weber, in an article written in 1999 has cited several criteria in selecting Internet resources for cataloging such as pricing, stability of resources, duplication, and licensing which remain relevant 10 years after.
Price. According to Weber, the cost of an Internet resource is much greater than that for a comparable print resource. Increased price of Internet resources can be justified if they offer greater possibilities for service and the potential of increased use by patrons. Libraries should also consider added costs for subscriptions, licenses, enhancements or upgrades. Likewise, purchase of additional hardware/software, its maintenance and storage are primary considerations when making selection decisions regarding Internet resources.
Appropriateness of an electronic resource. The need, quality, and presentation of information which the Internet resource provides should be properly considered, according to Weber. Their relevance to existing subject areas in the collection and their relationship to resources already available in the collection are additional considerations. Further, ease of use by patrons, the degree and type of assistance that librarians will provide to patrons, and user education and training are important factors in selection decisions (Weber).
Stability of Internet resources. According to Weber, stability of Internet resources should be a standard part of the selection process. This also includes vendor’s reliability and business record, commitment to continued support for a product, vendor produced documentation, and availability of customer support.
Libraries should closely examine whether a vendor delivers precisely what has been promised (full-text, full-image, with abstracts, or full-text without charts or other relevant illustrations that might be present in the print version). Concerns regarding maintenance and frequency of updating are also important.
Duplication. Libraries, according to Weber may choose an electronic resource that duplicates another resource currently in the collection (print, microform, or CD-ROM). Duplicate copies of Internet resources may be acquired when networking or other alternatives are not possible. In addition, a library may choose to provide a product or service in more than one format.
Licensing. Licensing is a major consideration in the selection and purchase of Internet resources since it determines type and level of service provided by the vendor. Weber raise the concern that licensing can restrict a library’s ability to provide interlibrary loans, number of on-site users, ability to provide access to remote users, and the ability to download or print information from a given resource.
Challenges and Issues and Concerns related to Cataloging Internet Resources
According to Šauperl and Saye (2009), cataloguing of internet resources is difficult mainly because of the dynamic nature of this medium. Many resources change their URLs, change their content so that the description in the catalog record does not describe the web site accurately, or disappear entirely.
Weber (1999) also states that Internet resources cannot be described in concrete terms in the manner used for books since information about a resource is likely to change quickly and more frequently. For example, Internet resources such as search engines may be purchased by another company which may greatly change the type of information provided, depth of coverage, and indexing, among others. Aggregator databases for electronic journal titles may add or drop titles with each update or new version.
Meanwhile, Morgan (n.d.) asserts that there several obstacles preventing a library's ability to add bibliographic records of Internet-based serials to its OPAC. The first is the dynamic nature of the Internet, and therefore, the dynamic nature of the serials. Too often, the "file not found" errors have been found on local computers as well as remote Internet-based computers. If a library were to rely on the addition of uniform resource locators (URL) in the 856 fields of MARC records, then librarians may spend much of their time tracking down "broken" URLs. Hopefully, the concept of the uniform resource identifier (URI) will come to fruition and reduce this problem.
Conclusion
Cataloging electronic resources is a work in progress. It is in state of flux. Guidelines and standards will continue to evolve as libraries gain more experience in dealing with Internet resources.
The decision to catalog Internet resources presents challenges and opportunities to both libraries and library and information science professionals. Decisions shall continue to be made as to what types of Internet resources will receive cataloging, and what information should be included in the bibliographic record.
The principles of information organization and cataloging would continue to guide LIS professionals in organizing electronic resources. Catalogers must remain flexible, and recognize that cooperation and collaboration with other LIS professionals would become increasingly important.
References
Anglo-American Cataloging Rules, Second Edition, 2002 Revision. Retrieved May 2, 2009 from http://desktop.loc.gov/
Harvard University Library. (2004). Cataloging Internet Resources: Monographs.
Retrieved April 30, 2009 from http://hcl.harvard.edu/technicalservices/policies/cataloging/internet_resources.pdf
Hsieh-Yee, I. (2000). Organizing Internet resources: teaching cataloging standards and beyond. OCLC Systems and Services. 16 (3), 130-143. Retrieved May 2, 2009 from Emerald Full Text Article
Library of Congress. Cooperative Online Serials (CONSER). Use of Fixed Fields 006/007/008 and Leader Codes in CONSER Records. Retrieved May 2, 2009 from http://www.loc.gov/acq/conser/ffuse.html
Library of Congress (2003). MARC 21 Formats: Guidelines for the Use of Field 856. Retrieved May 2, 2009 from http://www.loc.gov/marc/856guide.html
Library of Congress (n.d.) Draft Interim Guidelines for Cataloging Electronic Resources. Retrieved May 2, 2009 from http://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/dcmb19_4.html
.
Morgan, E. L. (n.d.). Cataloging Internet Resources: A Beginning. Retrieved April 30, 2009 from http://infomotions.com/musings/cataloging-resources/
Šauperl, A and Saye, J. D. (2009). Have we made any progress? Catalogues of the future revisited. Journal of Documentation, 65(3), 500-514. Retrieved May 2, 2009 from Emerald Full-Text Article
Stanford University Libraries and Academic Information Resources (SULAIR). (n.d.). Guidelines for Cataloging Internet Resources. Retrieved April 30, 2009 from http://www-
Weber, M. B. (1999). Factors to be considered in the selection and cataloging of Internet resources. Library Hi Tech, 17(3), 298 – 303. Retrieved May 2, 2009 from Emerald Full Text Article
Weitz, J. (2006). Cataloging Electronic Resources: OCLC-MARC Coding Guidelines.
Retrieved May 2, 2009 from http://www.oclc.org/support/documentation/worldcat/cataloging/electronicresourc es/default.htm
Yale University Library (n.d.). Cataloging Online Integrating Resources. Retrieved April 30, 2009 from http://www.library.yale.edu/cataloging/mst/marc/oir.html#hld
Paper written in Spring 2009
Introduction
This paper together aims to provide library professionals particularly beginning librarians increased understanding about cataloging electronic resources. In particular, this paper a) presents an overview of electronic resources and the importance of cataloging electronic resources, b) explores selection criteria, and c) presents issues and concerns related to cataloging electronic resources.
Overview of Electronic Resources
The Anglo- American Cataloging Rules (AACR), 2005 Update as cited by Weitz (2006) defines an electronic resource as a "Material (data and/or program(s)) encoded for manipulation by a computerized device. This material may require the use of a peripheral directly connected to a computerized device (e.g., CD-ROM drive) or a connection to a computer network (e.g., the Internet)." This definition does not include electronic resources that do not require the use of a computer, for example, music compact discs and videodiscs.
The Draft Interim Guidelines for Cataloging Electronic Resources/Library of Congress (n.d.) provides two ways of accessing electronic resource, namely a) direct access, and b) remote access. Direct access is the term used to characterize access to an electronic resource resident in a carrier such as a computer disk or a CD-ROM that a user physically inserts into a computer, usually a microcomputer. Remote access, on the other hand, refers to access to an electronic resource resident in a carrier that a user cannot physically handle, i.e., a resource accessed, processed, executed remotely. Remote access involves connection through a computer network and is usually referred to as "online" access.
The Anglo-American Cataloging Rules2 (AACR2) defines remote access to mean that no physical carrier can be handled. Remote access can only be provided by use of an input-output device (e.g., a terminal), either connected to a computer system (e.g., a resource in a network), or by use of resources stored in a hard disk or other storage device.
For the purpose of this paper, the focus of discussion will be mainly on remote access electronic resources i.e., online resources accessed over a computer network such as the Internet.
Importance of Cataloging Electronic Resources
Šauperl and Saye (2009) underscore the reasons why libraries have begun to catalog web sites and Internet resources. These are to make more resources available to users, and help users retrieve valuable information from the Internet. Hsieh-Yee (2000) adds that it is worthwhile to catalog important Internet resources for users because such efforts add value to the resources by collocating materials, facilitating access, and saving time.
Weber (1999) states that Internet resource provides the most current available information on a given topic. He argues that cataloging electronic resources could serve a great number of users simultaneously. In addition, the Internet resource does not require users to visit the library and guarantees 24-hour access to a resource.
Selection Criteria for Cataloging Internet Resources
The inclusion of Internet resources into the collections of libraries is an evolving process. Weber, in an article written in 1999 has cited several criteria in selecting Internet resources for cataloging such as pricing, stability of resources, duplication, and licensing which remain relevant 10 years after.
Price. According to Weber, the cost of an Internet resource is much greater than that for a comparable print resource. Increased price of Internet resources can be justified if they offer greater possibilities for service and the potential of increased use by patrons. Libraries should also consider added costs for subscriptions, licenses, enhancements or upgrades. Likewise, purchase of additional hardware/software, its maintenance and storage are primary considerations when making selection decisions regarding Internet resources.
Appropriateness of an electronic resource. The need, quality, and presentation of information which the Internet resource provides should be properly considered, according to Weber. Their relevance to existing subject areas in the collection and their relationship to resources already available in the collection are additional considerations. Further, ease of use by patrons, the degree and type of assistance that librarians will provide to patrons, and user education and training are important factors in selection decisions (Weber).
Stability of Internet resources. According to Weber, stability of Internet resources should be a standard part of the selection process. This also includes vendor’s reliability and business record, commitment to continued support for a product, vendor produced documentation, and availability of customer support.
Libraries should closely examine whether a vendor delivers precisely what has been promised (full-text, full-image, with abstracts, or full-text without charts or other relevant illustrations that might be present in the print version). Concerns regarding maintenance and frequency of updating are also important.
Duplication. Libraries, according to Weber may choose an electronic resource that duplicates another resource currently in the collection (print, microform, or CD-ROM). Duplicate copies of Internet resources may be acquired when networking or other alternatives are not possible. In addition, a library may choose to provide a product or service in more than one format.
Licensing. Licensing is a major consideration in the selection and purchase of Internet resources since it determines type and level of service provided by the vendor. Weber raise the concern that licensing can restrict a library’s ability to provide interlibrary loans, number of on-site users, ability to provide access to remote users, and the ability to download or print information from a given resource.
Challenges and Issues and Concerns related to Cataloging Internet Resources
According to Šauperl and Saye (2009), cataloguing of internet resources is difficult mainly because of the dynamic nature of this medium. Many resources change their URLs, change their content so that the description in the catalog record does not describe the web site accurately, or disappear entirely.
Weber (1999) also states that Internet resources cannot be described in concrete terms in the manner used for books since information about a resource is likely to change quickly and more frequently. For example, Internet resources such as search engines may be purchased by another company which may greatly change the type of information provided, depth of coverage, and indexing, among others. Aggregator databases for electronic journal titles may add or drop titles with each update or new version.
Meanwhile, Morgan (n.d.) asserts that there several obstacles preventing a library's ability to add bibliographic records of Internet-based serials to its OPAC. The first is the dynamic nature of the Internet, and therefore, the dynamic nature of the serials. Too often, the "file not found" errors have been found on local computers as well as remote Internet-based computers. If a library were to rely on the addition of uniform resource locators (URL) in the 856 fields of MARC records, then librarians may spend much of their time tracking down "broken" URLs. Hopefully, the concept of the uniform resource identifier (URI) will come to fruition and reduce this problem.
Conclusion
Cataloging electronic resources is a work in progress. It is in state of flux. Guidelines and standards will continue to evolve as libraries gain more experience in dealing with Internet resources.
The decision to catalog Internet resources presents challenges and opportunities to both libraries and library and information science professionals. Decisions shall continue to be made as to what types of Internet resources will receive cataloging, and what information should be included in the bibliographic record.
The principles of information organization and cataloging would continue to guide LIS professionals in organizing electronic resources. Catalogers must remain flexible, and recognize that cooperation and collaboration with other LIS professionals would become increasingly important.
References
Anglo-American Cataloging Rules, Second Edition, 2002 Revision. Retrieved May 2, 2009 from http://desktop.loc.gov/
Harvard University Library. (2004). Cataloging Internet Resources: Monographs.
Retrieved April 30, 2009 from http://hcl.harvard.edu/technicalservices/policies/cataloging/internet_resources.pdf
Hsieh-Yee, I. (2000). Organizing Internet resources: teaching cataloging standards and beyond. OCLC Systems and Services. 16 (3), 130-143. Retrieved May 2, 2009 from Emerald Full Text Article
Library of Congress. Cooperative Online Serials (CONSER). Use of Fixed Fields 006/007/008 and Leader Codes in CONSER Records. Retrieved May 2, 2009 from http://www.loc.gov/acq/conser/ffuse.html
Library of Congress (2003). MARC 21 Formats: Guidelines for the Use of Field 856. Retrieved May 2, 2009 from http://www.loc.gov/marc/856guide.html
Library of Congress (n.d.) Draft Interim Guidelines for Cataloging Electronic Resources. Retrieved May 2, 2009 from http://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/dcmb19_4.html
.
Morgan, E. L. (n.d.). Cataloging Internet Resources: A Beginning. Retrieved April 30, 2009 from http://infomotions.com/musings/cataloging-resources/
Šauperl, A and Saye, J. D. (2009). Have we made any progress? Catalogues of the future revisited. Journal of Documentation, 65(3), 500-514. Retrieved May 2, 2009 from Emerald Full-Text Article
Stanford University Libraries and Academic Information Resources (SULAIR). (n.d.). Guidelines for Cataloging Internet Resources. Retrieved April 30, 2009 from http://www-
Weber, M. B. (1999). Factors to be considered in the selection and cataloging of Internet resources. Library Hi Tech, 17(3), 298 – 303. Retrieved May 2, 2009 from Emerald Full Text Article
Weitz, J. (2006). Cataloging Electronic Resources: OCLC-MARC Coding Guidelines.
Retrieved May 2, 2009 from http://www.oclc.org/support/documentation/worldcat/cataloging/electronicresourc es/default.htm
Yale University Library (n.d.). Cataloging Online Integrating Resources. Retrieved April 30, 2009 from http://www.library.yale.edu/cataloging/mst/marc/oir.html#hld
Thursday, January 27, 2011
Folksonomy
Maruja De Villa Lorica
Paper written Spring 2010
A folksonomy refers to a system of classification derived from the practice and method of collaborative tagging to annotate and categorize content. Coined from the terms folk and taxonomy by Internet developer Thomas Vander Wal, folksonomy is also known as collaborative tagging, social classification, social indexing, and social tagging.
Around 2004, folksonomies became popular on the Web as part of social software applications such as social bookmarking and photograph annotation. Tagging, which is one of the defining characteristics of Web 2.0 services, allows users to collectively classify and find information. Some websites include tag clouds as a way to visualize tags in a folksonomy.
A significant feature of a folksonomy is that is composed of terms without hierarchy, and no directly specified parent-child or sibling relationships between these terms. Unlike formal taxonomies and classification schemes where there are multiple kinds of explicit relationships between terms, folksonomies are user-generated tags which cluster tags based on common URLs. Folksonomies are set of terms that a group of users tagged content with and they are not a predetermined set of classification terms or labels.
Folksonomy illustrates collective intelligence at work. Some of the identified advantages identified with folksonomies in organizing the web include: inclusiveness, currency, discovery potential, self-moderation, insights into user-behavior, spirit of sharing and community cohesion, usability, and low cost. Some of the disadvantages are: no synonym control, lack of precision, lack of hierarchy, lack of recall and susceptibility to gaming or spamming.
Sources:
Folksonomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folksonomy
ODLIS —Online Dictionary for Library and Information Science by Joan M. Reitzhttp://lu.com/odlis/odlis_t.cfm
Courtney, N. (2007). Library 2.0 and beyond: innovative technologies and tomorrow’s users. Westport, Connecticut: Libraries Unlimited.
Paper written Spring 2010
A folksonomy refers to a system of classification derived from the practice and method of collaborative tagging to annotate and categorize content. Coined from the terms folk and taxonomy by Internet developer Thomas Vander Wal, folksonomy is also known as collaborative tagging, social classification, social indexing, and social tagging.
Around 2004, folksonomies became popular on the Web as part of social software applications such as social bookmarking and photograph annotation. Tagging, which is one of the defining characteristics of Web 2.0 services, allows users to collectively classify and find information. Some websites include tag clouds as a way to visualize tags in a folksonomy.
A significant feature of a folksonomy is that is composed of terms without hierarchy, and no directly specified parent-child or sibling relationships between these terms. Unlike formal taxonomies and classification schemes where there are multiple kinds of explicit relationships between terms, folksonomies are user-generated tags which cluster tags based on common URLs. Folksonomies are set of terms that a group of users tagged content with and they are not a predetermined set of classification terms or labels.
Folksonomy illustrates collective intelligence at work. Some of the identified advantages identified with folksonomies in organizing the web include: inclusiveness, currency, discovery potential, self-moderation, insights into user-behavior, spirit of sharing and community cohesion, usability, and low cost. Some of the disadvantages are: no synonym control, lack of precision, lack of hierarchy, lack of recall and susceptibility to gaming or spamming.
Sources:
Folksonomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folksonomy
ODLIS —Online Dictionary for Library and Information Science by Joan M. Reitzhttp://lu.com/odlis/odlis_t.cfm
Courtney, N. (2007). Library 2.0 and beyond: innovative technologies and tomorrow’s users. Westport, Connecticut: Libraries Unlimited.
Digital Preservation
Maruja De Villa Lorica
Paper written in Spring 2009
Introduction
This paper aims to provide enhanced understanding of digital preservation as an integral part of project planning for a digital imaging initiative. It will a) present the definition and rationale for digital preservation, b) discuss strategies towards digital preservation, and c) identify some institutions implementing digital preservation strategies.
Definition of Digital Preservation
Digital preservation refers to series of managed activities undertaken to ensure continued access to digital resources for as long as necessary (Alemneh and Hartman, 2002). It is essentially about preserving access over time (Digital Preservation Coalition). Likewise, it also refers to actions required to maintain access to digital materials beyond the limits of media failure or technological change (van Horik, 2005).
Rationale for Digital Preservation
The purpose of digital preservation is to maintain the ability to display, retrieve, and use digital collections in the face of rapidly changing technological and organizational infrastructures and elements (Cornell University Library, 2003).
There are many reasons for the need to preserve digital materials. Technology obsolescence of hardware or software is a major concern. It is generally regarded as the greatest technical threat to ensuring continued access to digital material (Digital Preservation Coalition).
Likewise, storage media can simply decay or malfunction, a process known as bit rot, which can lead to serious losses of information. This can affect digital data to varying extents, from single character omission, to scrambling of information, or to a major loss of data (Grindley, 2009).
Organizational issues like withdrawal of funding and general institutional instability are valid concerns for digital collections. Organizations merge and fold, and as a result, digital collections and whole data sets can become ‘orphaned’ as institutional priorities, interest and incentive to deal with digital materials change (Grindley, 2009).
Strategies toward Digital Preservation
A number of digital preservation approaches are being implemented to address the problem of digital objects not being accessible in the future. These strategies include preservation, emulation, and migration.
The technology preservation strategy is concerned with the preservation of the original software and hardware that was used to create and access the information. It is based on preserving the technical environment that runs the system, including software and hardware such as operating systems, original application software, media drives, and the like (van Horik, 2005; Digital Preservation Coalition).
The technology emulation strategy involves the re-creation of the technical environment required to view and use a digital collection. This is achieved by maintaining information about the hardware and software requirements so that the system can be reengineered. Through this strategy, future computer systems emulate older, obsolete computer platforms as required. Emulation is the process of imitating obsolete systems on future generations of computers (van Horik, 2005; Digital Preservation Coalition).
In the digital information migration strategy, digital information is re-encoded in new formats before the old format becomes obsolete. Its purpose is to preserve the intellectual content of digital objects and to retain the ability for clients to retrieve, display and use them considering the prevailing technology changes (Digital Preservation Coalition).
Migration involves transferring digital information from one hardware and software setting to another or from one computer generation to subsequent generations. Migration can also be format-based, to move image files from an obsolete file format or to increase their functionality. For example, migration has been used for electronic text, image, and database applications by the computing industry and a number of data archives and centers for decades (Grindley, 2009; van Horik, 2005; Digital Preservation Coalition).
Institutions undertaking Digital Preservation
A number of organizations are implementing a wide range of activities related to the preservation of digital objects. These include libraries, archives, and to some extent, museums.
Within the library community, the Research Libraries Group (RLG) carries out activities under the caption ‘Long term retention of digital research materials (van Horik, 2005). For example, the University of North Texas has began digital imaging and preservation projects in 1997 and has developed partnerships with Federal and State agencies to house digital collections (Alemneh and Hartman, 2002).
Some of the Digital Projects at UNT Libraries include the Government Documents Department Project namely a) Federal Documents Projects (CyberCemetery), b) State Documents Projects (Texas Register ,Gammel‘s Laws of Texas, Texas Electronic Depository Library Project), and Portal to Texas History Project. It also includes digital preservation initiatives for the Music Library, Archives Collections, and for the Dissertations and Theses.
Archives around the world are also spearheading work on digital preservation. The European ERPANET project, whose partners originate mainly in the archival world, is a European Initiative to establish a virtual clearinghouse and knowledge base in the area of preservation of cultural heritage and scientific digital objects. In the Netherlands, the project ‘digitale duurzaamheid’ (digital longevity), initiated by the Dutch National Archives and the Ministry of the Interior, is testing alternatives for the digital archiving of government documents (van Horik 2005).
In Australia, the PANDORA (Preserving and Accessing Networked Documentary Resources of Australia) project has successfully established an archive of selected Australian online publications, developed several digital preservation policies and procedures, drafted a logical data model for preservation metadata, and outlined a proposal for a national approach to the long-term preservation of these publication (Cornell University Library, 2003).
Museums and other cultural heritage institutions are also utilizing digital technology to create digital surrogates of rare, unique and valuable collections. A few are now implementing digital preservation for their digital collection.
Conclusion
Digital preservation is a vital component in digital imaging. It is huge task that requires concerted actions among international, national and local institutions. Preservation strategies and policies should be put in place; otherwise, most of the digital data produced today may not be usefully accessed by future generations due to technological obsolescence, data loss and other concerns.
References
Alemneh, and Hartman, C.N. (2002). Meeting Digital Resources Preservation Challenges: University of North Texas Libraries Initiative. PowerPoint presentation at the LITA Conference, October 13, 2002.
Cornell University Library. (2003). Moving theory into practice: digital imaging tutorial. Retrieved March 5, 2009 from: http://www.library.cornell.edu/preservation/tutorial/contents.html;
http://www.library.cornell.edu/preservation/tutorial/preservation/preservation-01.html
Digital Preservation Coalition. Preservation Management of Digital
Materials: The Handbook (www.dpconline.org/graphics/handb). Retrieved March 5, 2009 from
http://www.dpconline.org/docs/handbook/DPCHandbookDigPres.pdf
Grindley, N. (Feb2009). Saving for the future. Research Information, Issue 40, p13-14, 2p. Retrieved March 5, 2009 from Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts with Full Text.
van Horik, R. (2005). Permanent pixels: Building blocks for the longevity of digital surrogates of historical photographs. The Hague. (PhD Dissertation). Retrieved March 6, 2009 from http://www.knaw.nl/publicaties/pdf/20051103.pdf
Paper written in Spring 2009
Introduction
This paper aims to provide enhanced understanding of digital preservation as an integral part of project planning for a digital imaging initiative. It will a) present the definition and rationale for digital preservation, b) discuss strategies towards digital preservation, and c) identify some institutions implementing digital preservation strategies.
Definition of Digital Preservation
Digital preservation refers to series of managed activities undertaken to ensure continued access to digital resources for as long as necessary (Alemneh and Hartman, 2002). It is essentially about preserving access over time (Digital Preservation Coalition). Likewise, it also refers to actions required to maintain access to digital materials beyond the limits of media failure or technological change (van Horik, 2005).
Rationale for Digital Preservation
The purpose of digital preservation is to maintain the ability to display, retrieve, and use digital collections in the face of rapidly changing technological and organizational infrastructures and elements (Cornell University Library, 2003).
There are many reasons for the need to preserve digital materials. Technology obsolescence of hardware or software is a major concern. It is generally regarded as the greatest technical threat to ensuring continued access to digital material (Digital Preservation Coalition).
Likewise, storage media can simply decay or malfunction, a process known as bit rot, which can lead to serious losses of information. This can affect digital data to varying extents, from single character omission, to scrambling of information, or to a major loss of data (Grindley, 2009).
Organizational issues like withdrawal of funding and general institutional instability are valid concerns for digital collections. Organizations merge and fold, and as a result, digital collections and whole data sets can become ‘orphaned’ as institutional priorities, interest and incentive to deal with digital materials change (Grindley, 2009).
Strategies toward Digital Preservation
A number of digital preservation approaches are being implemented to address the problem of digital objects not being accessible in the future. These strategies include preservation, emulation, and migration.
The technology preservation strategy is concerned with the preservation of the original software and hardware that was used to create and access the information. It is based on preserving the technical environment that runs the system, including software and hardware such as operating systems, original application software, media drives, and the like (van Horik, 2005; Digital Preservation Coalition).
The technology emulation strategy involves the re-creation of the technical environment required to view and use a digital collection. This is achieved by maintaining information about the hardware and software requirements so that the system can be reengineered. Through this strategy, future computer systems emulate older, obsolete computer platforms as required. Emulation is the process of imitating obsolete systems on future generations of computers (van Horik, 2005; Digital Preservation Coalition).
In the digital information migration strategy, digital information is re-encoded in new formats before the old format becomes obsolete. Its purpose is to preserve the intellectual content of digital objects and to retain the ability for clients to retrieve, display and use them considering the prevailing technology changes (Digital Preservation Coalition).
Migration involves transferring digital information from one hardware and software setting to another or from one computer generation to subsequent generations. Migration can also be format-based, to move image files from an obsolete file format or to increase their functionality. For example, migration has been used for electronic text, image, and database applications by the computing industry and a number of data archives and centers for decades (Grindley, 2009; van Horik, 2005; Digital Preservation Coalition).
Institutions undertaking Digital Preservation
A number of organizations are implementing a wide range of activities related to the preservation of digital objects. These include libraries, archives, and to some extent, museums.
Within the library community, the Research Libraries Group (RLG) carries out activities under the caption ‘Long term retention of digital research materials (van Horik, 2005). For example, the University of North Texas has began digital imaging and preservation projects in 1997 and has developed partnerships with Federal and State agencies to house digital collections (Alemneh and Hartman, 2002).
Some of the Digital Projects at UNT Libraries include the Government Documents Department Project namely a) Federal Documents Projects (CyberCemetery), b) State Documents Projects (Texas Register ,Gammel‘s Laws of Texas, Texas Electronic Depository Library Project), and Portal to Texas History Project. It also includes digital preservation initiatives for the Music Library, Archives Collections, and for the Dissertations and Theses.
Archives around the world are also spearheading work on digital preservation. The European ERPANET project, whose partners originate mainly in the archival world, is a European Initiative to establish a virtual clearinghouse and knowledge base in the area of preservation of cultural heritage and scientific digital objects. In the Netherlands, the project ‘digitale duurzaamheid’ (digital longevity), initiated by the Dutch National Archives and the Ministry of the Interior, is testing alternatives for the digital archiving of government documents (van Horik 2005).
In Australia, the PANDORA (Preserving and Accessing Networked Documentary Resources of Australia) project has successfully established an archive of selected Australian online publications, developed several digital preservation policies and procedures, drafted a logical data model for preservation metadata, and outlined a proposal for a national approach to the long-term preservation of these publication (Cornell University Library, 2003).
Museums and other cultural heritage institutions are also utilizing digital technology to create digital surrogates of rare, unique and valuable collections. A few are now implementing digital preservation for their digital collection.
Conclusion
Digital preservation is a vital component in digital imaging. It is huge task that requires concerted actions among international, national and local institutions. Preservation strategies and policies should be put in place; otherwise, most of the digital data produced today may not be usefully accessed by future generations due to technological obsolescence, data loss and other concerns.
References
Alemneh, and Hartman, C.N. (2002). Meeting Digital Resources Preservation Challenges: University of North Texas Libraries Initiative. PowerPoint presentation at the LITA Conference, October 13, 2002.
Cornell University Library. (2003). Moving theory into practice: digital imaging tutorial. Retrieved March 5, 2009 from: http://www.library.cornell.edu/preservation/tutorial/contents.html;
http://www.library.cornell.edu/preservation/tutorial/preservation/preservation-01.html
Digital Preservation Coalition. Preservation Management of Digital
Materials: The Handbook (www.dpconline.org/graphics/handb). Retrieved March 5, 2009 from
http://www.dpconline.org/docs/handbook/DPCHandbookDigPres.pdf
Grindley, N. (Feb2009). Saving for the future. Research Information, Issue 40, p13-14, 2p. Retrieved March 5, 2009 from Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts with Full Text.
van Horik, R. (2005). Permanent pixels: Building blocks for the longevity of digital surrogates of historical photographs. The Hague. (PhD Dissertation). Retrieved March 6, 2009 from http://www.knaw.nl/publicaties/pdf/20051103.pdf
Are issues related to gender and stereotyping still relevant in LIS?
Maruja De Villa Lorica
Paper written Fall 2008
Introduction
This paper a) explores some gender issues and stereotypes in the library and information science (LIS) profession, b) defines some terms to enhance understanding of these issues, c) presents researches and articles that examine gender issues and stereotypes as they relate to LIS, and, d) provides some affirmative actions and initiatives to address gender concerns.
Definition of Terms
Glass ceiling refers to an invisible barrier that prevents women from breaking through or reaching the peak of their professions. It is defined demographically by documenting the dearth of women “at the top” (J. C. Williams, 2004). Maternal wall refers to a barrier that that blocks women’s career by their decision to have children. Like the glass ceiling, maternal wall is documented demographically by showing the dearth of mothers in desirable (faculty) jobs (J. C. Williams).
Glass escalator, on the other hand, refers to an invisible pressure for men to move up in their professions. Hultin (2004) defines glass escalator as the upwardly mobile career path of men working in typically female occupations that equally qualified women can hardly enjoy in such occupations.
Gender stereotyping is a generalized perception or image by a group of people towards another group that can lead to false assumptions, negative impressions or discrimination.
Female Librarian’s Glass Ceiling and Maternal Wall
According to the Library Journal Placements and Salaries Survey 2008 reported by Maatta (2008, ¶ 2), women make up 80% of the new members of the LIS workforce. Women comprise 72.9% in academic libraries, 68.9% in government libraries and 67.4% in other agencies and organizations while dominating the school library media positions (93.9%).
However, compared to women’s over-all representation in the library science profession, the proportion of women in upper-level management positions in libraries is low (Voelck, 2003, p. 394). Voelck adds that while librarianship is a women-dominated profession, glass ceiling persists. Men often occupy the highest level decision-making administrative positions and tend to predominate in top-level administrative positions in larger public libraries and in large, academic libraries.
Likewise, the issue of salary gap between male- and female librarians continues to exist (Sverdlin, 2008). Maatta (¶ 1) further reports that the average yearly salary for female librarians is $ 41,731 while male librarian’s average salary is $45,192. Several authors suggest that this can be attributed to maternal wall; women have less earning power due to situations such as less seniority or fewer work hours as a result of child care responsibilities which tend to fall on women (Anderson, n.d.; J. C. Williams, 2004).
An interesting finding by Voelck (pp. 400-401) gives the implication that it may be difficult for women to balance the high demands of work and family. In her study on gender-based differences in management styles of academic library managers, she found that male and female respondents were remarkably similar in demographic and personal characteristics except on marital status. Of the females, 46.7% were single, 33.3% married, and 20% divorced. Thus, more than one-half (66.7%) were unmarried. However, only one of the 13 male respondents was single, the rest of the respondents, (92%) were married, although one said he is separated.
Male Librarian Stereotypes and Glass Escalator
Piper and Collamer (2001, p. 406) state that men in the library profession are in a complex situation. They experience stereotyping, invisibility, and even discrimination (Gatly, 2004; Gordon, 2004; C. Williams, 1992). Stereotypes of librarians in popular culture have resulted in many male librarians feeling limited or even ostracized as a result of their occupational title.
Male librarians encounter negative stereotypes when they come into contact with clients and people outside of work. They often experience stereotypes that they are gay or asexual or that they are unable to get a better job. Men who work with children may be thought to be pedophiles (C. Williams).
They also feel tension as minority members of a female dominated profession (Gordon, ¶ 7). They feel “invisible”, mainly due to the perception of librarianship as "women's work", male librarianship goes unrecognized, and "male" issues on the job are largely ignored (Gatley, p. 5).
Some male librarians also experience the escalator effect, where “men are pushed into managerial positions against their will” (C. Williams). Some men are "tracked" into areas within their professions which are considered more legitimate for men, such as being pushed into administration when they are much more interested in research and service-oriented jobs (C. Williams).
Librarian Stereotyping in Books
Another gender issue in LIS is librarian stereotyping in books. Peresie and Alexander (2005) examined whether portrayal of librarians in young adult literature supports or rejects the negative librarian stereotyping through content analysis of young adult fiction books.
They found that overall, among the young adult books reviewed, librarians were portrayed in a “more negative or neutral light”. Some of the librarian characters were made fun of or ridiculed by the students and often depicted as having no life outside of the library. Thirteen of the seventeen librarians (76 %) portrayed in the stories were female, which reinforce the general stereotype that librarianship is a feminized profession.
Affirmative Actions and Initiatives
While much remains to be done, gender and stereotyping have been recognized as relevant and legitimate issues in LIS through research and scholarly discussions.
Ingold (2007) cites efforts and initiatives to empower women and men in the library profession and their patrons. For example, academic libraries allocated budget lines for acquiring new works of feminist scholarship, designated subject liaisons to emerging women's studies programs, and some established separate libraries or reading rooms on gender studies. Likewise, youth librarians made it a point to acquire materials and generate programs that would appeal to girls as well as boys. Anderson (n.d.) also states that gender awareness can be integrated in collection development, cataloguing, and providing patrons access to gender-fair materials.
Peresie and Alexander state that so much more needs to be done to dispel the current stereotypes about librarians. They argued that more positive portrayals of male librarian characters in young adult novels could encourage more males to enter the profession by decreasing its feminized perception.
Gatley, on the other hand maintains that combating stereotypes lies not in improving the image of the male librarian, or the image of the female librarian, but in the advancement and betterment of librarianship as a whole. Similarly, Gordon adds that the changing LIS environment requires diversity. By having people from different genders, sexual orientation, generations, races, ethnic backgrounds, and social classes, the library is better equipped to serve its patrons.
References
Anderson, K. (n. d.). Why does feminism matter in library and information studies?
Retrieved October 17, 2008, from http://www.gslis.mcgill.ca/marginal/mar8-2/feminism.htm
Gatley, R. (2004). The invisible librarian. Mr. Lady, the Male Librarian. Retrieved October 18, 2008, from http://www.slais.ubc.ca/COURSES/libr500/03-04-wt2/www/r_gatley/invisibility.htm
Gordon, R. S. (2004, June). NextGen: The men among us. Library Journal. Retrieved October 18, 2008, from http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA423789.html
Hultin, M. (2003). Some take the glass escalator, some hit the glass ceiling? Work and Occupations, 30, (1), 30-61. Retrieved October 18, 2008, from http://wox.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/30/1/30
Ingold, C. (2007, Fall). Introduction: Gender issues in information needs and services. Library Trends, 56, (2), 299-302. Retrieved October 17, 2008, from Project Muse.
Maatta, S. (2008, October). Inside the library gender gap: An exploration of why women rule libraries except when it comes to pay. Library Journal. Retrieved October 17, 2008, from http://www.libraryjournal.com/index.asp?layout=article&articleid=CA6604387
Peresie, M. & Alexander, L. B. (2005, Fall). Librarian stereotypes in young adult literature. Young Adult Library Services. 4, (1), 24-31. Retrieved October 17, 2008, from Academic Search Complete.
Piper, P. & Collamer, B. E. (2001, September). Male librarians: Men in feminized profession. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 27, (5), 406-411. Retrieved October 18, 2008, from Academic Search Complete.
Sverdlin, T. (2008, October). Wage discrepancies and gender in librarianship. LibGig LLC. Retrieved October 17, 2008, from http://www.libgig.com/wages
Voelck, J. (2003). Directive and connective: Gender based differences in the management styles of academic library managers. Portal: Libraries and the Academy, 3, 393-418. Retrieved October 18, 2008, from Project Muse.
Williams, C. L. (1992) "The glass escalator: Hidden advantages for men in the 'female' professions. Social Problems, 39, 253-267. Retrieved October 18, 2008, from http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/hdh9/e-reserves/Williams_- _The_glass_escalator_PDF-1.pdf
Williams, J. C. (2004, November-December). Hitting the maternal wall. Academe. Retrieved October 18, 2008, from http://www.calfac.org/allpdf/researchcntr/Article5_121406.pdf
Paper written Fall 2008
Introduction
This paper a) explores some gender issues and stereotypes in the library and information science (LIS) profession, b) defines some terms to enhance understanding of these issues, c) presents researches and articles that examine gender issues and stereotypes as they relate to LIS, and, d) provides some affirmative actions and initiatives to address gender concerns.
Definition of Terms
Glass ceiling refers to an invisible barrier that prevents women from breaking through or reaching the peak of their professions. It is defined demographically by documenting the dearth of women “at the top” (J. C. Williams, 2004). Maternal wall refers to a barrier that that blocks women’s career by their decision to have children. Like the glass ceiling, maternal wall is documented demographically by showing the dearth of mothers in desirable (faculty) jobs (J. C. Williams).
Glass escalator, on the other hand, refers to an invisible pressure for men to move up in their professions. Hultin (2004) defines glass escalator as the upwardly mobile career path of men working in typically female occupations that equally qualified women can hardly enjoy in such occupations.
Gender stereotyping is a generalized perception or image by a group of people towards another group that can lead to false assumptions, negative impressions or discrimination.
Female Librarian’s Glass Ceiling and Maternal Wall
According to the Library Journal Placements and Salaries Survey 2008 reported by Maatta (2008, ¶ 2), women make up 80% of the new members of the LIS workforce. Women comprise 72.9% in academic libraries, 68.9% in government libraries and 67.4% in other agencies and organizations while dominating the school library media positions (93.9%).
However, compared to women’s over-all representation in the library science profession, the proportion of women in upper-level management positions in libraries is low (Voelck, 2003, p. 394). Voelck adds that while librarianship is a women-dominated profession, glass ceiling persists. Men often occupy the highest level decision-making administrative positions and tend to predominate in top-level administrative positions in larger public libraries and in large, academic libraries.
Likewise, the issue of salary gap between male- and female librarians continues to exist (Sverdlin, 2008). Maatta (¶ 1) further reports that the average yearly salary for female librarians is $ 41,731 while male librarian’s average salary is $45,192. Several authors suggest that this can be attributed to maternal wall; women have less earning power due to situations such as less seniority or fewer work hours as a result of child care responsibilities which tend to fall on women (Anderson, n.d.; J. C. Williams, 2004).
An interesting finding by Voelck (pp. 400-401) gives the implication that it may be difficult for women to balance the high demands of work and family. In her study on gender-based differences in management styles of academic library managers, she found that male and female respondents were remarkably similar in demographic and personal characteristics except on marital status. Of the females, 46.7% were single, 33.3% married, and 20% divorced. Thus, more than one-half (66.7%) were unmarried. However, only one of the 13 male respondents was single, the rest of the respondents, (92%) were married, although one said he is separated.
Male Librarian Stereotypes and Glass Escalator
Piper and Collamer (2001, p. 406) state that men in the library profession are in a complex situation. They experience stereotyping, invisibility, and even discrimination (Gatly, 2004; Gordon, 2004; C. Williams, 1992). Stereotypes of librarians in popular culture have resulted in many male librarians feeling limited or even ostracized as a result of their occupational title.
Male librarians encounter negative stereotypes when they come into contact with clients and people outside of work. They often experience stereotypes that they are gay or asexual or that they are unable to get a better job. Men who work with children may be thought to be pedophiles (C. Williams).
They also feel tension as minority members of a female dominated profession (Gordon, ¶ 7). They feel “invisible”, mainly due to the perception of librarianship as "women's work", male librarianship goes unrecognized, and "male" issues on the job are largely ignored (Gatley, p. 5).
Some male librarians also experience the escalator effect, where “men are pushed into managerial positions against their will” (C. Williams). Some men are "tracked" into areas within their professions which are considered more legitimate for men, such as being pushed into administration when they are much more interested in research and service-oriented jobs (C. Williams).
Librarian Stereotyping in Books
Another gender issue in LIS is librarian stereotyping in books. Peresie and Alexander (2005) examined whether portrayal of librarians in young adult literature supports or rejects the negative librarian stereotyping through content analysis of young adult fiction books.
They found that overall, among the young adult books reviewed, librarians were portrayed in a “more negative or neutral light”. Some of the librarian characters were made fun of or ridiculed by the students and often depicted as having no life outside of the library. Thirteen of the seventeen librarians (76 %) portrayed in the stories were female, which reinforce the general stereotype that librarianship is a feminized profession.
Affirmative Actions and Initiatives
While much remains to be done, gender and stereotyping have been recognized as relevant and legitimate issues in LIS through research and scholarly discussions.
Ingold (2007) cites efforts and initiatives to empower women and men in the library profession and their patrons. For example, academic libraries allocated budget lines for acquiring new works of feminist scholarship, designated subject liaisons to emerging women's studies programs, and some established separate libraries or reading rooms on gender studies. Likewise, youth librarians made it a point to acquire materials and generate programs that would appeal to girls as well as boys. Anderson (n.d.) also states that gender awareness can be integrated in collection development, cataloguing, and providing patrons access to gender-fair materials.
Peresie and Alexander state that so much more needs to be done to dispel the current stereotypes about librarians. They argued that more positive portrayals of male librarian characters in young adult novels could encourage more males to enter the profession by decreasing its feminized perception.
Gatley, on the other hand maintains that combating stereotypes lies not in improving the image of the male librarian, or the image of the female librarian, but in the advancement and betterment of librarianship as a whole. Similarly, Gordon adds that the changing LIS environment requires diversity. By having people from different genders, sexual orientation, generations, races, ethnic backgrounds, and social classes, the library is better equipped to serve its patrons.
References
Anderson, K. (n. d.). Why does feminism matter in library and information studies?
Retrieved October 17, 2008, from http://www.gslis.mcgill.ca/marginal/mar8-2/feminism.htm
Gatley, R. (2004). The invisible librarian. Mr. Lady, the Male Librarian. Retrieved October 18, 2008, from http://www.slais.ubc.ca/COURSES/libr500/03-04-wt2/www/r_gatley/invisibility.htm
Gordon, R. S. (2004, June). NextGen: The men among us. Library Journal. Retrieved October 18, 2008, from http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA423789.html
Hultin, M. (2003). Some take the glass escalator, some hit the glass ceiling? Work and Occupations, 30, (1), 30-61. Retrieved October 18, 2008, from http://wox.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/30/1/30
Ingold, C. (2007, Fall). Introduction: Gender issues in information needs and services. Library Trends, 56, (2), 299-302. Retrieved October 17, 2008, from Project Muse.
Maatta, S. (2008, October). Inside the library gender gap: An exploration of why women rule libraries except when it comes to pay. Library Journal. Retrieved October 17, 2008, from http://www.libraryjournal.com/index.asp?layout=article&articleid=CA6604387
Peresie, M. & Alexander, L. B. (2005, Fall). Librarian stereotypes in young adult literature. Young Adult Library Services. 4, (1), 24-31. Retrieved October 17, 2008, from Academic Search Complete.
Piper, P. & Collamer, B. E. (2001, September). Male librarians: Men in feminized profession. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 27, (5), 406-411. Retrieved October 18, 2008, from Academic Search Complete.
Sverdlin, T. (2008, October). Wage discrepancies and gender in librarianship. LibGig LLC. Retrieved October 17, 2008, from http://www.libgig.com/wages
Voelck, J. (2003). Directive and connective: Gender based differences in the management styles of academic library managers. Portal: Libraries and the Academy, 3, 393-418. Retrieved October 18, 2008, from Project Muse.
Williams, C. L. (1992) "The glass escalator: Hidden advantages for men in the 'female' professions. Social Problems, 39, 253-267. Retrieved October 18, 2008, from http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/hdh9/e-reserves/Williams_- _The_glass_escalator_PDF-1.pdf
Williams, J. C. (2004, November-December). Hitting the maternal wall. Academe. Retrieved October 18, 2008, from http://www.calfac.org/allpdf/researchcntr/Article5_121406.pdf
Information Seeking Process
Maruja De Villa Lorica
Paper written Spring 2009
Article reviewed:
Kuhlthau, Carol Collier. 1993. The information search process. In Seeking meaning: A process approach to library and information services. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. [ch. 3: 33-53]
Dr. Carol Collier Kuhlthau is presently Professor II Emerita at the School of Communication, Information and Library Studies, Rutgers University.
In the article written in 1993, Kuhlthau described in detail the Model of Information Search process (ISP) which evolved out of an exploratory study which she earlier reported in 1985 and 1988. The study involved 25 senior high school students who were given assignments to write two research papers. The students’ journals, search logs, pieces of writing and answers to a questionnaire provided details on the information search process used. Case studies of six of the participants through interviews, timelines, and flowcharts provided additional information.
Based from this exploratory study, Kuhlthau identified six stages in the information seeking process, namely task initiation, topic selection, prefocus exploration, focus formulation, information collection, and search closure. She described information seeking as complex process that occurs in a series of sequential stages, each stage represents the task most appropriate to moving the process to the subsequent stage.
Kuhlthau characterized the first stage, initiation as the stage when a person becomes aware that information will be needed to “complete an assignment”. The person feels uncertain and apprehensive. The next stage, selection is when a person has chosen an idea, topic, or problem. At this point, the person is now less uncertain, and feels a sense of optimism and a readiness to start the information search process.
The third stage, the exploration process, which Kuhlthau considers the most difficult stage, is when students (or information seekers) become confused when they encounter “inconsistent or incompatible” information. It is at this point that information seekers may become discouraged, express feelings of doubt and plan of abandoning their search process. The fourth stage, focus formulation, which is considered as the turning point, is when a focused perspective is formed, uncertainty decreases and confidence grows in the search process.
The fifth stage, collection is when information relevant to the topic is gathered. At this point, the information seeker feels a sense of direction; his/her uncertainty diminishes and becomes interested and deeply involved in the search process. The last stage, search closure is when the search is completed and information seekers prepare to present or use their findings. They experience relief and a sense of satisfaction if the search process is successful or disappointed if they feel that the search was a failure.
Kuhlthau states that these six stages of the ISP encompass “the affective (feelings), the cognitive (thoughts), and the physical (actions).
Reading through the ISP made me realize my own experience during an information search, like uncertainty, apprehension, optimism, confidence, and just plain relief when the task is completed. In simple routine tasks, where the goal is to answer a simple question, people may not go through the six stages in their information seeking, but in complex tasks, people may experience the stages described in the ISP model.
Paper written Spring 2009
Article reviewed:
Kuhlthau, Carol Collier. 1993. The information search process. In Seeking meaning: A process approach to library and information services. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. [ch. 3: 33-53]
Dr. Carol Collier Kuhlthau is presently Professor II Emerita at the School of Communication, Information and Library Studies, Rutgers University.
In the article written in 1993, Kuhlthau described in detail the Model of Information Search process (ISP) which evolved out of an exploratory study which she earlier reported in 1985 and 1988. The study involved 25 senior high school students who were given assignments to write two research papers. The students’ journals, search logs, pieces of writing and answers to a questionnaire provided details on the information search process used. Case studies of six of the participants through interviews, timelines, and flowcharts provided additional information.
Based from this exploratory study, Kuhlthau identified six stages in the information seeking process, namely task initiation, topic selection, prefocus exploration, focus formulation, information collection, and search closure. She described information seeking as complex process that occurs in a series of sequential stages, each stage represents the task most appropriate to moving the process to the subsequent stage.
Kuhlthau characterized the first stage, initiation as the stage when a person becomes aware that information will be needed to “complete an assignment”. The person feels uncertain and apprehensive. The next stage, selection is when a person has chosen an idea, topic, or problem. At this point, the person is now less uncertain, and feels a sense of optimism and a readiness to start the information search process.
The third stage, the exploration process, which Kuhlthau considers the most difficult stage, is when students (or information seekers) become confused when they encounter “inconsistent or incompatible” information. It is at this point that information seekers may become discouraged, express feelings of doubt and plan of abandoning their search process. The fourth stage, focus formulation, which is considered as the turning point, is when a focused perspective is formed, uncertainty decreases and confidence grows in the search process.
The fifth stage, collection is when information relevant to the topic is gathered. At this point, the information seeker feels a sense of direction; his/her uncertainty diminishes and becomes interested and deeply involved in the search process. The last stage, search closure is when the search is completed and information seekers prepare to present or use their findings. They experience relief and a sense of satisfaction if the search process is successful or disappointed if they feel that the search was a failure.
Kuhlthau states that these six stages of the ISP encompass “the affective (feelings), the cognitive (thoughts), and the physical (actions).
Reading through the ISP made me realize my own experience during an information search, like uncertainty, apprehension, optimism, confidence, and just plain relief when the task is completed. In simple routine tasks, where the goal is to answer a simple question, people may not go through the six stages in their information seeking, but in complex tasks, people may experience the stages described in the ISP model.
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