Maruja De Villa Lorica
Paper written in June 2010
Introduction
This paper aims to provide enhanced understanding on the topic of information-seeking behavior. Specifically, it will a) present the definition of information seeking behavior by scholars and researchers in the field of library and information science (LIS); b) identify the importance of information seeking behavior to LIS professionals; c) describe two important user behaviors models on information seeking; d) provide some similarities and differences between the two models; and e) present application of the models to the LIS profession.
Definition of Information-seeking behavior
Case (2008, p. 8) defines information seeking as “a conscious effort to acquire information in response to a need or gap in your knowledge”. Wilson (1999, para. 9) states that information-seeking behaviour is a “consequence of a need perceived by an information user, who, in order to satisfy that need, makes demands upon formal or informal information sources or services, which result in success or failure to find relevant information”.
Further, Wilson (2000 explains that:
"Information Seeking Behavior is the purposive seeking for information as a consequence of a need to satisfy some goal. In the course of seeking, the individual may interact with manual information systems (such as a newspaper or a library), or with computer-based systems (such as the World Wide Web) (p. 49)."
Fourie (2006) considers information seeking as “ a complex, dynamic, social human behaviour that needs as rich a picture as possible to truly understand the phenomenon – and even then there will be many unanswered questions” (p. 20).
Importance of Information Seeking Behavior to the work of library professionals
Information seeking behavior has been a focus of research within the library and information profession. According to Agosto and Hughes-Hassell (2005, p. 141), understanding human information behavior is a vital component in providing high quality library service. When LIS professionals understand human information-seeking behaviors and preferences, they can transform their services and resources to correspond to these patterns, to better serve users’ information needs.
People from all walks of life seek out and utilize information everyday. Information regarding studies and research, work, entertainment, health, money matters, family, and other topics, is obtained from various sources. Knowledge of reasons and motivation why people seek information and the types of information they seek in their everyday lives can impact “collection development, reference services, programming, and budget allotment practices” (Agosto & Hughes-Hassell, 2005, p. 142).
Results of information seeking studies can be used for improving collection development. As articulated by Agosto and Hughes-Hassell (2005), librarians would be better able to match their collections to young adults’ information-seeking practices given an understanding and appreciation of young adults’ source/channel preferences (p. 142). Haines, Light, O’Malley, and Delwiche (2010) stated that library resources and services can be modified and made more valuable to patrons in response to findings of information-seeking studies. For example, as a result of their project, graduate student orientations were added, online subject guides were inserted into course management software and departmental web pages, and purchase of more online resources intended for use in the basic sciences have been considered.
In addition, Fourie (2006, pp. 20-21) said that results from web information-seeking studies can assist LIS professionals in knowledge representation, the design of web sites and portals, in the development of training and web-based information retrieval systems (IRS), the design and administration of online education, electronic customer relationship management (CRM) and electronic service quality.
Discussion of two user behavior models that describe information seeking from different perspectives
According to Johnson (as cited by Case, 2008, p. 121), models are important means to represent and organize complex processes. Models focus on specific problems than theories (Case, p. 120). Usually depicted in illustrations, flow-charts, and diagrams, models aim to describe and explain circumstances that predict actions by individuals to find information they need.
Wilson (2000) describes information behavior model as:
"A framework for thinking about a problem and may evolve into a statement of the relationships among theoretical propositions. Most models in the general field of information behaviour are of the former variety: they are statements, often in the form of diagrams that attempt to describe an information-seeking activity, the causes and consequences of that activity, or the relationships among stages in information-seeking behaviour (para. 6)."
The two models of information seeking described in this paper are Carol Collier Kuhlthau’s model of the stages of information-seeking behaviour and David Ellis's behavioral model of information seeking strategies.
Kuhlthau (1991, 1993) described in detail the model of Information Search Process (ISP) which evolved out of an exploratory study which she earlier reported in 1985 and 1988. The study involved 25 senior high school students who were given assignments to write two research papers. The students’ journals, search logs, pieces of writing and answers to a questionnaire provided details on the information search process used. Case studies of six of the participants through interviews, timelines, and flowcharts provided additional information.
Based from the study, Kuhlthau identified the following stages in the information seeking process: (1) task initiation: uncertainty; (2) topic selection: optimism; (3) prefocus exploration: confusion, frustration, and doubt; (4) focus formulation: clarity; (5) information collection: direction, confidence; (6) search closure: relief; (7) starting writing: satisfaction or dissatisfaction (Kuhlthau, 1993).
Kuhlthau characterized the first stage, initiation as the stage when a person becomes aware that information will be needed to “complete an assignment”. The person feels uncertain and apprehensive. The next stage, selection is when a person has chosen an idea, topic, or problem. At this point, the person is now less uncertain, and feels a sense of optimism and a readiness to start the information search process.
The third stage, the exploration process, which Kuhlthau considers the most difficult stage, is when students (or information seekers) become confused when they encounter “inconsistent or incompatible” information. It is at this point that information seekers may become discouraged, express feelings of doubt and plan of abandoning their search process. The fourth stage, focus formulation, which is considered as the turning point, is when a focused perspective is formed, uncertainty decreases, and clarity is obtained.
The fifth stage, collection is when information relevant to the topic is gathered. At this point, the information seeker feels a sense of direction; his/her uncertainty diminishes and becomes interested and deeply involved in the search process. At this point, confidence grows in the search process. The sixth stage, search closure is when the search is completed and information seekers prepare to present or use their findings. They experience relief and a sense of satisfaction if the search process is successful or disappointed if they feel that the search was a failure. Kuhlthau states that these stages of the ISP encompass “the affective (feelings), the cognitive (thoughts), and the physical (actions).
According to Cooper (2002, p. 906), Kuhlthau's research is unique in that it takes into consideration the feelings, actions and thoughts involved in the search process. It considers how the searcher feels (affective) during different parts of the Information Seeking Process as well as what the searcher is thinking (cognitive) and doing (action). Each stage of Kuhlthau’s Information Seeking Process is characterized by particular feelings, thoughts, and actions. The actions can be thought of as coinciding with changes in search strategies.
Ellis (1993, 2002) studied the activities and perceptions of academic social scientists at the University of Sheffield in the United Kingdom. Ellis used informal semistructured interview among social science scholars consisting of psychologists, educationalists, economists, sociologists, historians, geographers and political scientists. He analyzed the data using a grounded theory approach. From the results, Ellis identified 6 major categories to cover the characteristics of the information seeking patterns of social scientists, namely 1) starting, 2) chaining, 3) browsing, 4) differentiating, 5) monitoring, and 6) extracting.
According to Ellis (1993), starting refers to seeking information on a new topic and gathering initial relevant information. Starting includes activities that form the initial search for information such as identifying sources that could serve as starting points of the search. These could be familiar sources used before or less familiar sources that can provide relevant information. These initial sources can lead to, or suggest, or recommend additional sources or references. Following up on these new leads from an initial source is the activity of Chaining.
Chaining, as clarified by Ellis, refers to following references in a work to its cited works (backward) and finding new citations to this work (forward). Backward chaining occurs when pointers or references from an initial source are followed, while forward chaining identifies and follows up on other sources that refer to an initial source or document.
The next category, according to Ellis is browsing which refers to undirected information seeking activity. It is looking for information in a casual way, which by exploration could lead to chance discovery of information in areas of interest to the user. Browsing involves looking through tables of contents, lists of titles, subject headings, names of organizations or persons, abstracts and summaries. Next to browsing is differentiating, which is the process of discriminating between information sources using specific criteria. During differentiating, the information seeker filters and selects from among the sources by taking note of the differences between the nature and quality of the information offered.
Monitoring, as described by Ellis is the process of keeping abreast of developments in areas of research interests. By monitoring, the information seeker concentrates on core sources of information which may include personal contacts and publications. Extracting refers to working systematically through sources to identify relevant material of interest. An information seeker is able to achieve extracting by directly consulting the source, or by indirectly looking through bibliographies, indexes, or online databases. Two other categories, namely; Verifying which is checking the accuracy of information and Ending which may refer to as 'tying up loose ends' through a final search are also identified (Ellis, 1993; Wilson, 1999).
As indicated by Wilson (1999, para. 22), the remaining behaviors do not necessarily take place in a sequential manner and may commence in different sequences at different times in the overall search process. He adds that Ellis’ features of information seeking patterns can be considered as “between the micro-analysis of search behaviour (starting, chaining, extracting, verifying, ending) and a more macro-analysis of information behaviour (browsing, monitoring, differentiating)”.
Meho and Tibbo (2003) assert that Ellis’ categorization of actual information seeking behavior activities among social scientists suggested that information retrieval systems could increase their usefulness by including features that directly support these activities (p. 571).
Similarities and Differences between the two models
According to Limberg (1999), the models of Ellis and Kuhlthau are both based on users' perspectives of information seeking and both are results of empirical studies. In particular, Järvelin and Ingwersen (2004) state that the approaches in information seeking based on Kuhlthau's model and Ellis's characteristics of information seeking behaviour cover several empirical domains, such as the social sciences and engineering, and some work task contexts, such as student information seeking.
Wilson (1999, para. 25) stated that Kuhlthau's work complements that of Ellis by attaching to stages of the 'information search process' the associated feelings, thoughts and actions, and the appropriate information tasks.
Kuhlthau's model of the information search process was however developed within a learning context-among secondary school students, while Ellis study was conducted among a particular occupational group, namely, social scientists, academics, researchers, and scholars.
Ways by which models can help information professionals improve information products and services
Cooper (2002) said that enhanced understanding of Kuhlthau’s information seeking process of how young children look for information in a textual environment lends insight to LIS professionals to develop more supportive environments for this particular population group. By having positive early encounters with information systems, young searchers would be encouraged to seek out these systems with a greater confidence in their success. This increased confidence will likely facilitate the ease with which young searchers will seek and use more sophisticated information systems in their later years.
Fourie (2006, p.28) adds that library and information professionals who recognize that information seeking involves a cognitive process as well as feelings (affective component) and actions can provide reassurance to library patrons who have questions and feel uncertain about their search process. By continuing with the search and exploring different or new options, patrons get to a point where they feel confident again. Library and information professionals must share such insights and experiences with users for them to continue in their search process.
As stated by Meho and Tibbo (2003, p.571) most of the information-seeking behavior features in Ellis' model have now found application in information science and computer technology. They maintain that Ellis’ information-seeking behavior features “are now being supported by capabilities available in Web browsers” (p.571).
Choo, Detlor and Turnbull (as cited by Meho and Tibbo, 2003) described that:
"For example, an individual could begin surfing the Web from one of a few favorite pages or sites (starting); follow links to related information resources—in both backward and forward linking directions (chaining): scan the web sites of the sources selected (browsing): bookmark useful sources for future reference (differentiating); subscribe to e-mail based services that alert the user of new information or developments (monitoring); and search a particular source or site for all information on that site on a particular topic (extracting) (p. 571)."
Conclusion
The discussion in this paper aimed to contribute to enhanced understanding on the topic of information-seeking behavior by: a) presenting the definition of information seeking behavior by scholars and researchers in the field of library and information science (LIS); b) identifying the importance of information seeking behavior to LIS professionals; c) describing two important user behaviors models on information seeking; d) providing some similarities and differences between the two models; and e) presenting some application of the models to the LIS profession. Understanding human information seeking behavior is fundamental in planning, developing and implementing library information resources and services.
References
Agosto, D. E., & Hughes- Hassell, S. (2005). People, places, and questions: An investigation of the everyday life information-seeking behaviors of urban young adults. Library & Information Science Research, 27(2), 141–63. Retrieved June 14, 2010 from the University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Library Literature & Info Science Full Text database.
Case, D. O. (2008). Looking for information: A survey of research on information seeking, needs, and behavior (2nd ed.). Bingley, UK: Emerald.
Cooper, L. Z. (2002, September). A Case study of information-seeking behavior in 7-year-old children in a semi-structured situation. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 53(11), 904-922. Retrieved June 14, 2010 from the University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts with Full Text database.
Ellis, D. (1993). Modeling the information-seeking patterns of academic researchers: A
grounded theory approach. Library Quarterly, 63(4), 469-486. Retrieved June 14, 2010 from the University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts with Full Text database.
Ellis, D. (2002). Information seeking and mediated searching. Part 5: User-intermediary interaction. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(11), 883-93. Retrieved June 14, 2010 from the University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts with Full Text database.
Fourie, I. (2006). Learning from web information seeking studies: some suggestions for LIS practitioners. The Electronic Library, 24(1), 20-37. Retrieved from the University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Emerald Full Text database.
Haines, L.L., Light, J., O’Malley, D., & Delwiche, F. A. (2010, January) Information-seeking behavior of basic science researchers: implications for library services. Journal of Medical Library Association, 98(1), 73–81. Retrieved June 14, 2010, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2801986/. DOI: 10.3163/1536-5050.98.1.019.
Järvelin, K., & Ingwersen, P. (2004). Information seeking research needs extension towards tasks and technology. Information Research, 10(1). Retrieved June 13, 2010, from http://InformationR.net/ir/10-1/paper212.html
Kuhlthau, C.C. (1991). Inside the search process: information seeking from the users’ perspective. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 42(5), 361-71. Retrieved June 13, 2010 from University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts with Full Text database.
Kuhlthau, C. C. (1993). The information search process. In Seeking meaning: A process approach to library and information services (ch. 3: 33-53). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Limberg, L. (1999). Experiencing information seeking and learning: A study of the interaction between two phenomena. Information Research, 5(1). Retrieved June 13, 2010, from http://informationr.net/ir/5-1/paper68.html
Meho, L., & Tibbo, H. (2003). Modeling the information-seeking behavior of social scientists: Ellis's study revisited. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 54(6), 570. Retrieved June 13, 2010 from University of North Texas Electronic Resources, Academic Search Complete database.
Wilson, T. D. (1999). Models in information behaviour research. Journal of Documentation, 55(3), 249-270. Retrieved June 13, 2010, from http://informationr.net/tdw/publ/papers/1999JDoc.html
Wilson, T. D. (2000). Human information behavior. Informing Science, 3(2). Retrieved June 14, 2010, from http://inform.nu/Articles/Vol3/v3n2p49-56.pdf
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